Where are voltage gated channels located on the neuron?
axon
What are motor nerves called?
efferent nerves
Efferent nerves carry information from the ____ to the ____
CNS, muscles and glands
Where do somatic nerves go?
skeletal muscle
Where do autonomic nerves go?
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands
What do somatic efferent nerves release?
Ach
A somatic motor nerve controls _____ movement by the ____, which is the fastest type of nerve fiber
voluntary, alpha motor neurons
What is a muscle spindle?
a mechanoreceptor that lies among the muscle fibers and measures the length of the muscle
Synapses allow for ____ and _____ response time so a reflex has ____ synapses between the sensory neuron and the motor neuron
flexible, increase, fewer
What are the five things included in the reflex arc?
1) sensory receptor
2) afferent nerve (to the CNS)
3) synapse and usually an interneuron
4) efferent nerve (away from CNS)
5) effector (muscle or gland that produces the response)
Muscles only _____
contract
Flexor ____ the limb
bend
Extensor _____ the limb
extend
If the muscle spindle is _____, the frequency of action potentials in the sensory nerve's axon increases
stretched
Reciprocal inhibition means that when the stretch reflex contracts one muscle, the opposing muscle is _____
relaxed (inhibited)
Sensory nerve always creates ____ in the postsynaptic dendrites; if the postsynaptic nerve is inhibitory then it will create ____ in the next neuron
EPSPs, IPSPs
When a person falls forward, what is stretched?
flexor
When a person is blown backwards what muscle is stretched?
extensor
What are the two inhibitory neurotransmitters?
GABA, glycine
Where does the lateral corticospinal tract cross?
What crosses in the medulla?
Where does the anterior corticospinal tract cross?
What crosses at the spinal cord?
What does the primary somatic sensory cortex receive?
What receives sensory input?
What does the primary motor cortex do?
What directly controls motor neurons and sends out instruction to spinal motor neurons to implement the decision?
What does the sensory association cortex do?
What interprets the information?
What does the motor association/premotor cortex do?
What organizes muscle movements for the motor cortex?
What do higher response areas do?
What relates to previous experience and decides response?
What do the basal ganglia and cerebellum contribute to?
What contributes to learned, complex voluntary movements?
Where does the basal ganglia receive information from?
What receives information from the premotor cortex?
Where does the basal ganglia send output through?
The thalamus receives output from where and sends it back to the premotor cortex?
What is the basal ganglia known as referring to time?
What is known as the stop watch?
What neurotransmitter in the basal ganglia is important for starting and stopping voluntary movement?
Where does dopamine come from and what does it do?
What is there a deficiency of in Parkinson's?
If someone has a deficiency of dopamine what disease does this cause?
What is the cerebellum responsible for?
What is responsible for coordination of complex movements, learning motor activities, coordinating walking and balance?
What is the neurotransmitter that is always released from the alpha motor neuron to the skeletal muscle?
Where is Ach released from?
What type of channel are nicotinic acetylcholine receptors?
What receptors are ligand-gated ion channels?
Where are nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located?
What receptors are located on skeletal muscle cell membranes?
What happens when acetylcholine binds to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor?
Na+ comes into the cell and depolarizes the muscle membrane; the muscle end plate potential will always start an action potential(opens voltage-gated sodium channels)
What does acetycholinesterase do?
What enzyme breaks down acetylcholine into choline and acetate; turing the contraction response off?
After acteylcholine is broken down, choline is moved into the cell through cotransport which is a type of?
What is moved into the cell through cotransport, a type of secondary active transport?
What provides the energy for choline to move actively into the cell so more acetylcholine can be made?
What does Na+ do?
What is the smooth ER in muscle cells?
What is sarcoplasmic reticulum?
What is stored inside sarcoplasmic reticulum?
Calcium is stored inside where?
Actin and myosin are what within a myofibril?
What are the proteins within myofibril?
What do myosin molecules make up?
What makes up the thick filament?
What does myosin have on it that will connect to actin?
What do the cross bridges on myosin do?
What makes up the thin filament?
Actin, tropomyosin and troponin make up what?
What does the myosin head (of the cross bridge) have?
What has an actin attachment site and also has an enzyme function that allows it to attach to and split ATP for energy?
What is a sarcomere?
What is a unit of thick and thin filaments from one Z line to the next Z line?
What happens when the muscle contracts?
When the sarcomere shortens what is happening to the muscle?
What happens when the muscle contracts?
When the z lines are pulled toward each other what is happening to the muscle?
What blocks the heads where myosin heads attach?
What does tropomyosin do?
What can move the tropomyosin away from the myosin binding sites on the actin?
What does troponin do?
What is the signal for troponin to move the tropomyosin out of the way so that myosin binding sites are accessible to myosin heads for a muscle contraction?
What does calcium signal?
Where does acetylcholine bind and what happens?
What binds to nicotinic receptors on the cell membrane of a skeletal muscle cell and opens a channel allowing sodium to come in so that the muscle is depolarized?
What goes down the t-tubule?
After the muscle cell membrane becomes depolarized, an action potential spreads out along the cell membrane and down what?
What are t-tubules?
What are parts of the cell membrane that tunnel into the cytoplasm between sarcoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER in muscle cells)?
What is a special protein that lets the calcium out of the sarcoplasmic reticulum when the action potential comes down the t-tubule?
What does a voltage-sensitive protein do?
What is tetanus?
What is maximum tension called?
How is maximum tension reached?
Rapid summation without relaxation causes what to be reached?
What is a motor unit?
What is a group of muscle fibers that are innervated by the same motor neuron called?
What type of control uses as few as 20 muscle fibers?
How many muscle fibers does fine control use?
What uses as many as 1000 muscle fibers?
How many muscle fibers does strength use?
How do muscle fibers differ?
What differs in rate of tension, amount of tension, duration of tension and rate of relaxation?
What nervous system has pathways that go to smooth muscle, the heart and glands?
Where do the pathways in the autonomic system go?
In the autonomic pathway, how many nerves are there between the CNS and target organ?
There are two nerves in what pathway and between where?
What is the neuron from the CNS to the ganglion called?
Where is the preganglionic neuron located?
What is the neuron that goes from the ganglion to the target tissue?
Where is the postganglionic neuron located?
What pathways have two neurons?
Both sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways have how many neurons?
Do sympathetic pathways usually have short or long preganglionic?
What pathway has short preganglionic?
Do parasympathetic pathways usually have short or long preganglionic?
What pathway has a long preganglionic?
Do sympathetic pathways usually have short or long postganglionic?
What pathway has a long postganglionic?
Do parasympathetic have a short or long postgnaglionic?
What pathway has a short postganglionic?
What is released from both the preganglionic and postganglionic neuron in a parasympathetic pathway?
Where is acetylcholine release from?
Where does the acetylcholine from the preganglionic neuron go?
What does the nicotinic receptor receive?
Where does the acetylcholine from the postganglionic neuron go?
What does the muscarinic receptor receiver?
What do the two cholinergic receptors both receive?
acetylcholine
What does the sympathetic pathway release in the ganglion to a nicotinic receptor?
Acetylcholine
What do adrenergic receptors receive?
What receives norepinephrine?
What are the two types of adrenergic receptors?
What are both Alpha (G protein with IP3) and Beta (G protein with c-AMP)?
Is there troponin in smooth muscle?
What muscle doesn't have troponin?
Is there tropomysoin in smooth muscle?
What type of muscle has tropomyosin but does not block myosin?
When can myosin interact with actin?
When the myosin head has a phosphate attached to a regulatory site what happens?
What does smooth muscle need to contract?
Calcium is needed in order to do what?
What does the calcium bind to and what does it activate?
calmodyline, myosin light chain kinase
How is the cardiac muscle action potential different from skeletal and what is it due to?
What type of muscle has a plateau after its initial depolarization due to calcium channels that open when sodium channels inactivate?
The tension of heart muscle ends at the same time that the refractory period ends so there can never be what?
Why can there never be summation in the heart?
In cardiac muscle calcium enters the cell through membrane channels where?
What enters through the t-tubules?
In cardiac muscle, when calcium is released in the cytoplasm what does it bind to?
What binds to troponin on actin in the cardiac muscle?
What does troponin do in the cardiac muscle? Then what happens?
troponin moves the tropomyosin out of the way of the binding sites on actin. Now myosin can bind and create a contraction
How do you relax a cardiac muscle?
What happens when you remove calcium from the cardiac muscle?
How do you remove calcium from a cardiac muscle?
What are sodium/calcium exchanger on plasma membrane, calcium pump on the plasma membrane and calcium pump on the sarcoplasmic reticulum used for?
What starts an impulse for the heart to contract?
What does the SA node do for the heart?
What do the intercalated disks between cardiac muscle cells have so that the action potentials can spread from one cell to another?
Where are gap junctions located?
What are capillaries?
What is the area where the body can exchange waste and nutrients?
Blood flows from the right side of the heart to the lungs through what?
Pulmonary arteries carry blood from where to where?
In the lungs, where does the blood flow through?
Pulmonary capillaries
From the lungs the blood flows to the left side of the heart through what?
Veins carry blood from where to where?
Where do veins always bring the blood back to?
the heart
Where do arteries always take blood away from?
the heart
How does blood on a pressure gradient?
down
What kind of pressure are the aorta and arteries?
What has high pressure?
What kind of pressure are veins?
What has low pressure?
What creates the high pressure in arteries? And what does high pressure do?
What does having elasticity do? What makes the blood want to flow?
What do arterioles do? What kind of muscle do they have?
What controls how much blood flows to each capillary? What has smooth muscle?
Where do nutrients and waste pass between the cells and the blood?
What is the function of capillaries?
Where does blood flow the slowest?
capillaries
What collects the blood as it leaves the capillaries?
What is the job of venules
What stores blood that has used up its energy?
What do the right atrium and large veins hold?
What do the ventricles provide?
What provides energy for blood to go from low to high pressure?
What kind of blood do arteries store?
What stores blood that has high energy and wants to flow
Where are the sensory nerves located? What do they do?
What nerves are located in the arteries? What senses the blood pressure so the heart knows if it should pump faster or slower (they make sure cardiac output equals what the cells/tissue need)?
Where is the blood raised from low energy to high energy?
What happens to the blood in the ventricles?
Where is blood that comes back from the veins (systemic veins or pulmonary veins) held while the ventricles contract and pump blood into the arteries (pulmonic arteries or aortic arteries)?
What is held in the atrium/atria?
What are the two different parts in the cardiac cycle?
What are the ventricular systole (ventricular contraction) and ventricular diastole (ventricular filling)?
What valve is closed during ventricular systole (ventricular contraction)?
During what is the mitral/tricupsid valve closed while blood is pushed through the aortic valve?
What valve is closed during ventricular diastole (ventricular filling)?
During what is the aortic/semilunar valve closed while the mitral valve is open- moves from the atrium to the ventricle?
Where is the bicuspid/mitral valve?
What valve is located between the left atrium and left ventricle?
Where is the tricuspid valve?
What valve is located between the right atrium and right ventricle?
What are the mitral and tricuspid valves called?
What valves are the AV(atrial ventricular) valves?
What are the pulmonary and aortic valves called?
What are the two valves that are called semilunar valves?
What happens when a ventricle fills with blood?
it expands like a balloon
Is there blood left in a ventricle after it finishes contracting?
yes
When lines cross on the graph measuring pressure what does this mean?
What happens to lines if a valve opens or closes?
When does the first heart sound occur?
What occurs when the mitral and tricuspid valves close?
When does the second heart sound occur?
What occurs when the aortic and pulmonic valves close?
From where does the cardiac muscle receive the signal to contract?
Other muscle cells send the signal to contract to where?
What is the SA node called?
What node is also referred to the pacemaker of the heart?
What is a voltmeter?
What is a electrocardiogram with reference on the patient's right shoulder and exploring electrode on the patients left?
What is cardiac output?
What is it called when the volume of blood pumped around the blood vessels in a minute?
What is the formula for cardiac output?
What is this formula for
heart rate x stroke volume=
What do parasympathetic nerves do?
What nerves lower the heart rate?
In parasympathetic neurons where are there nicotinic cholinergic receptors?
What receptors are in the ganglion?
In parasympathetic neurons, where are there muscarinic cholinergic receptors?
What receptors are at the target tissue?
What nerves increase the heart rate?
What do sympathetic nerves do?
What is end diastolic volume/preload?
What is the volume in the ventricle when it begins to contract called?
What is end systolic volume?
What is the volume left in the ventricle after contraction called?
What is the equation for stroke volume?
What is this formula for
end diastolic - end systolic=
What is ejection fraction?
What is the percent of blood that is ejected during contraction called?
What is the formula for ejection fraction?
What is this formula for
stroke volume/end diastolic volume=
What is the average ejection fraction?
60%