Physiology
The study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its component parts, including all its chemical and physical processes.
Levels of Organization in the Human Body
1. Atoms
2. Molecules
3. Organelles
4. Cells
5. Tissues
6. Organs
7. Organs Systems
8. Organisms
The Organ Systems of the Human Body
1. Circulatory
2. Digestive
3. Endocrine
4. Lymphatic
5. Integumentary
6. Muscular
7. Skeletal
8. Nervous
9. Reproductive (male and female)
10. Urinary
Themes of Physiology
1. Structure and function are closely related
2. Living organisms need energy
3. Information flow coordinates body functions
4. Homeostasis maintains internal stability
5. Evolution
Homeostasis
Process by which organisms maintain and regulate a relatively stable internal environment.
Extracellular Fluid (ECF)
The fluid found outside or around cells. Includes Interstitial fluid and plasma.
Intracellular Fluid (ICF)
Fluid found within the cells.
The Law of Mass Balance
The Law that states that the amount of a substance in the body remains constant, and that any gain must be offset by an equal loss. (Input must equal Output)
The Law of Mass Balance (equation)
Total amount of substance x in the body = intake + production - excretion - metabolism
Input components in the body
Water, nutrients, oxygen, other gases, volatile molecules, lipid soluble chemicals enter the body through the intestines, lungs, and skin. Also includes metabolic production.
Output components in the body
Excretion waste by kidneys, liver, lungs and skin. Also includes the conversion of a substance to another substance through metabolism.
Mass Flow (equation)
0
Response Loop
Stimulus ~> sensor ~> input signal ~> integrating center ~> output signal ~> target ~> response
Feedback Loop
A physiological reflex in which the response "feeds back" to influence the input portion of the pathway thus ending the reflex response.
Negative Feedback
A homeostatic pathway in which the response opposes or removes the signal.
Positive Feedback
A non-homeostatic pathway in which the response reinforces the stimulus rather than decreasing or removing it.
Major Essential Elements
1. Carbon-------
2. Hydrogen-------Most essential
3. Oxygen-----
4. Nitrogen
5. Phosphorus
6. Sulfur
Biomolecules
Organic molecules associated with living organisms.
The 4 groups of biomolecules
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleotides
Conjugated Proteins
Protein molecules combined with another kind of biomolecules
Glycosylated
Molecules to which a carbohydrate has been attached.
Lipids
The biomolecules have a backbone of glycerol and 1-3 fatty acids. Includes lipid related steroids.
Carbohydrates
These biomolecules are the most abundant and can be divided into three categories: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides
These carbohydrates are the simplest sugars and considered the building blocks of the more complex carbohydrates. Include Ribose (RNA) Deoxyribose (DNA), Fructose, Glucose, Galactose.
Disaccharides
These carbohydrates consists of Glucose and another monosaccharide. Include Sucrose(Fructose+Glucose), Maltose(Glucose+Glucose), Lactose(Glucose+Galactose)
Polysaccharides
These carbohydrates are Glucose polymers and all living cells store glucose for energy in this form. Includes Glycogen in animals and Starch in plants
Proteins
These biomolecules are polymers of amino acids (there are 20 different amino acids) which have a carboxyl group (-COOH), an amino group (-NH2), and a hydrogen attached.
Nucleotides
These biomolecules play an important role in energy and information transfer. They include one or more phosphate groups, a 5-carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
Single Nucleotide Molecules
These type of nucleotides molecules help capture and transfer energy in high-energy e- or phosphate bonds and aid in cell to cell communication. Ex: ATP, ADP, NAD, FAD, and cAMP.
Functional Groups
These are combinations of elements that tend to move from molecule to molecule as a single unit.
1. Amino (-NH2)
2. Carboxyl (-COOH)
3. Hydroxyl (-OH)
4. Phosphate (-H2PO4)
Important Ions of the Body
Cations
1. Sodium (Na+)
2. Potassium (K+)
3.Calcium (Ca++)
4.Hydrogen (H+)
5.Magnesium (Mg++)
Anions
6.Chloride (Ch-)
7.Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
8. Phosphate (HPO4--)
9. Sulfate (SO4--)
Characteristics of e-
-can form covalent bonds
-gained of lost create ions
-capture and store energy
-create free radicals
Fibrous Protein
This protein may be B-pleated sheets or long chains of A-helices that are insoluble in water and from important structural components of cells and tissues.
Globular Protein
This protein has an amino acid chain that folds back on itself to create a complex tertiary structure that contains pockets, channels, or protruding knobs.
The pH of Blood
7.40 pH
Buffer
Any substance that moderates changes in pH
Ex: Bicarbonate anion
Protein Categories
1. Enzymes
2. Membrane transporters
3. Signal molecules
4. Receptors
5. Binding proteins
6. Immunoglobulins
7. Regulatory proteins
Enzymes
These types of protein are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions.
Membrane transporters
These type of protein help move substances back and forth between the ICF and ECF.
Signal molecules
These type of protein act as hormones and other signal molecules
Receptors
These type of protein bind signal molecules and initiate response
Binding proteins
These type of protein bind and transport molecules throughout the body
Immunoglobulins
These type of proteins are extracellular immune proteins, also called antibodies
Regulatory proteins
These type of proteins turn cell processes on and off or up and down
Ligand
Any molecule or in that binds to another molecule
Affinity
The degree to which a protein is attracted to a ligand
Law of Mass Action
This law states that when a reaction is at equilibrium, the ratio of he products to the substrates is always the same
Competitors
The related ligands compete for the binding sites are said to be this.
Agonist
These are competing ligands that mimic each other's actions
Isoforms
These are closely related proteins whose function is similar but whose affinity for ligands differs
Proteolytic Activation
When the protein is inactive until peptide fragments are removed
Allosteric Activation
This is a modulator that binds to protein away from binding sites and turns it on
Cofactors
These are required for an active bonding site for most proteins and enzymes
Competitive Inhibitor
This type of inhibition blocks ligand binding at the binding site
Allosteric Inhibitor
This is a modulator that binds to protein away from binding site and inactivates the bonding site
Factors that Influence Protein Activity
1. Temperature and pH
2. Amount of protein
3. Amount of ligand
The cell membrane
This membrane contains Carbohydrates, Proteins, Chlesterol, Phospholipids/Sphigolipids
Integral Protein
These type of protein are tightly bound to the membrane. Include Transmembrane protein, and lipid-anchored protein
Peripheral Protein
These proteins are attached to other membrane proteins by noncovalent interactions. Include enzymes and some structural binding protein that are anchored to the cytoskeleton
Transmembrane Protein
These are protein chains that extend all the way across the cell membrane
Glycocalyx
These are membrane carbohydrates that attach to glycoproteins or glycolipids and are found exclusively on the external surface of the cell where they from a protective layer and cell recognition
Cytoplasmic Protein Fibers
These protein fibers have to purposes: structural support and movement. Include:
1. Microfilaments
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microtubules
Microfilaments
These are the thinnest protein fibers also called actin fibers
Intermediate Filaments
These are a type of protein fiber that are made up of different types of protein including keratin, and neurofilament
Microtubules
These are the largest type of protein fiber that are hollow and are made of a protein called tubulin. These are also create complex structures such as: centrioles, cilia, and flagella
Primary Tissue Types in Humans
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Neural
The 3 Major Types of Junctions
1. Gap Junctions
2. Tight Junctions
3. Anchoring Junctions
Gap Junctions
This junction allows direct cell to cell communication in the form of chemical or electrical signals.
Tight Junctions
This junction restrict the movement of material between the cells they link.
Anchoring Junction
This type of junction attaches cells to each other or to the extracellular matrix.
Epithelial Tissue
This type of tissue protects the internal environment of the body and regulates the exchange of materials between the internal and external envn't
Types of Epithelial Tissue
1. Exchange Epithelium
2. Protective " "
3. Ciliated " "
4. Secretory " "
5. Transporting "
Exchange Epithelium
This type of epithelial tissue is composed of thin flat cells that allow gases to pass rapidly between the cells.
Protective Epithelium
This type of epithelial tissue prevent the exchange between the internal and external environments and protect areas subject to mechanical of chemical stress
Ciliated Epithelium
This type of epithelial tissue are nontransporting tissues that line the respiratory tract and parts of the female rep. sys. The apical surface is lined with cilia that move fluid and particles across the surface of the tissue
Secretory Epithelium
This type of epithelial tissue is composed of cells that produce a substance and then secretes it into the extracellular space. Includes Endocrine glands and Exocrine glands.
Endocrine Glands
This type of epithelial gland is ductless and release their secretion, called hormone, directly into the blood stream for they are highly vascularized.
Exocrine Glands
This type of epithelial glands have ducts and release their secretion onto the body's external environment.
Transporting Epithelium
This type of epithelial tissue actively and selectively regulate the exchange of nongaseous materials, such as ions and nutrients, between the internal and external environments
Connective Tissue
This type of tissue provides structural support and sometimes a physical barrier that, along with specialized cells, helps defend the body from foreign invaders such as bacteria.
Types of Connective Tissue
1. Loose connective tissue
2. Dense irregular c. t.
3. Blood
4. Cartilage
5. Bone
Loose Connective Tissue
This type of C. T. are the elastic tissues that underline skin and provide support for small glands. Includes areolar, adipose and elastic c.t
Dense Connective Tissue
This type of C. T. provides strength or flexibility. Include regular, irregular, and reticular. Collagen fibers are dominant
Cartilage
This type of C. T. is a semi-solid and therefore flexible, it is notable for its lack of blood supply. Includes hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage
Bone
This type of C. T. is a solid due to calcification. Includes spongy and compact bone.
Blood
This type of C. T. is characterized by its watery extracellular matrix called plasma. Includes red and white cells along with cell fragments called platelets
Mast Cells
This type of cell produce histamine which increases permeability of capillaries and sets the stage for inflammation
Energy
The capacity to do work
The 3 Types of Work
1. Chemical Work
2. Transport Work
3. Mechanical Work
Chemical Work
This type of work is the making and breaking of chemical bonds.
Transport Work
This type of work enables cells to move ions, molecules, and larger particles through the cell membrane and through the membranes of organelles in the cell
Mechanical Work
This type of work is used for micro and macro movement.
The 2 Forms of Energy
1. Kinetic energy
2. Potential energy
Kinetic Energy
The energy of motion
Potential Energy
Stored energy that can be converted into kinetic energy
Thermodynamics
This is the study of energy use
1st Law of Thermodynamics
This law states that the total amount of energy in the universe is constant
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
This law states that processes move from a state of order to randomness or disorder, or entropy
Activation Energy
This is the initial input of energy required to bring reactants into a position that allows them to react with each other.
Bioenergetics
The study of energy flow through biological systems
Chemical Reaction
This happens when reactants (A and B) become products (C and D).
A + B ~> C + D
Exergonic Reaction
This type of chemical reaction releases energy because the products have less energy than the reactants
Endergonic Reaction
This type of chemical reaction traps some activation energy in the products, which then have more free energy that the reactants
Isozymes
These are enzymes that catalyze the same reaction but under different conditions or different tissues
Coenzymes
These are organic cofactors for enzymes that do not alter the enzyme's binding site.
Phosphorylation
The addition of a phosphate group
Oxydation
A molecule that loses an e- is said to have gone through this
Reduction
A molecule that gains an e- is said to have gone through this
Dehydration Reactions
In this reaction a water molecule is one of the products. In other words, two substrates become one while losing water on the way
Hydrolysis Reaction
In this reaction a substrate changes into one or more products through the addition of water
Deamination
The removal of an amino group from an amino acid or peptide
Amination
The addition of an amino group
Metabolism
Refers to all the chemical reactions that take place in an organism. It is often divided into:
1. Catabolism
2. Anabolism
Catabolism
This is a metabolic reaction in which energy is released due to the breakdown of large biomolecules
Anabolism
This is a metabolic reaction in which energy-utilizing reactions that result in the synthesis of large biomolecules
Glycolysis
This step in ATP production occurs in cytoplasm; converts one glucose into 2 pyruvates, makes 2 ATP and NADH
Osmosis
The movement of water across a membrane in response to a solute concentration gradient
Osmolarity
The number of osmotically active particles (ions or inactive molecules) per liter of solution.
Osmolarity (equation)
molarity(mol/L) x # of particles/molecule = osmolarity (osmol/L)
Osmolality
The concentration expressed as osmoles of solute per kilogram of water
Isosmotic
When two solutions contain the same number of solute particles per unit volume
Hyperosmotic
When a solution A has a higher osmolarity(contains more particles per unit volume, is more concentrated) than another solution (B) is is said to be this.
Hyposmotic
When a solution B has fewer osmoles per unit volume than the other solution (A) it is said to be this.
Tonicity
This is a physiological term used to describe a solution and how that solution would affect cell volume if the cell were placed in the solution and allowed to come to equilibrium.
Hypotonic Solution
A solution where the concentration of dissolved material inside the cell is higher than outside, causing the cell to swell at equilibrium.
Hypertonic Solution
A solution where the concentration of dissolved material inside the cell is lower than outside causing the cell to shrivel at equilibrium.
Isotonic Solution
A solution where the concentration of dissolved material inside the cell and outside cell are equal, causing the cell to have no change size at equilibrium.
Penetration Solutes
Solute particles that can enter the cell are called this.
Non-penetrating Solutes
Particles that cannot cross the cell membrane
Bulk Flow
The most general form of biological transport where a pressure gradient causes fluid to flow from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure
Passive Transport
This type of transport does not require the input of energy.
Active Transport
This type of transport requires the input of energy from some outside source, such as the high energy phosphate bond of ATP
Diffusion
The movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration of the molecules to an area of lower concentration of the molecules.
Properties of Diffusion
1. It is a passive transport
2. It goes from high to low
3. It keeps going until equilibrium is reached
4. Fast in short distances and slow in long ones
5. Directly related to temperature
6. Rate is inversely related to weight and size
7. It can take plac
Simple Diffusion
Diffusion directly across the phospholipid bilayer of a membrane. Along with the 7 properties of diffusion this type of diffusion must also follow these properties:
8. Rate of diffusion depends on lipid solubility
9. Rate of diffusion is directly proporti
Fick's Law of Diffusion
This law states that the diffusion rate increases when surface area, the concentration gradient, or the membrane permeability increase.
Factors that influence membrane permeability
1. Size and shape of molecules
2. Lipid solubility of molecule
3. The composition of the lipid bilayer
Types of membrane proteins
1. Membrane transporters
2. Structural proteins
3. Membrane enzymes
4. Membrane receptors
The 2 types of Membrane Transporters
1. Carriers
2. Channels
Channel Proteins
These type of protein create water-filled passageways that directly link the intracellular and extracellular components
Carrier Proteins
These type of protein bind to the substrates that they carry but never from a direct connection between the ICF and the ECF.