bar graph
discrete categories
independent variable
control; x-axis
dependent variable
y-axis, measured
Caption of graphs
Figure 1. "The effect of" __ on __.
1 Tailed
is the mean larger, smaller than the other
2 Tailed
is there a difference between the two
paired
same person being tested ( before and after comparison)
unpaired
separate independent groups
P> .05
there is no significant difference
P<.05
there is a significant difference
Scatter plot
continuous numbers
trendline
polynomial or linear ( which ever fits the graph best just have to see)
Membrane Transport Lab
Waters is permeable to the bag of glucose and it moves into the bag and up the tube because of osmotic pressure and because of hydrostatic pressure the osmosis=diffusion
Osmotic Pressure
pulls the water and glucose up the tube
Hydrostatic Pressure
pushing down like gravity and stops the movement of sugar solution
Membrane is permeable to solute
solute moves from high to low concentrations
Membrane is impermeable to solute
H2O moves from high to low concentrations
H2O moves from low to high solute concentrations
Diffusion rates are different because...
Fick's law: molecular weight is inversely related to diffusion rate
Isotonic
cloudy RBC
Hypertonic
water moves from inside to outside
Crenation (shrivels up)
cloudy RBC
Hypotonic
water moves from outside to inside
Hemolysis (swells) and bursts
clear
Enzyme concentration
indicates inhibitor; increasing enzyme concentration= increases reaction rate; linear (noncompetitive fashion)
Substrate concentration
indicated saturations; increasing substrate= increases rate until plateau at x=__
pH graphs enzymes
optimal point at highest and denaturation at low and highest pH
Temperature graph enzymes
optimal point highest and denaturation high temp
inhibitor
noncompetitive- allosteric
competitive- active site
increase inhibitor decreases rate because unable to bind to enzyme
Ionic Concentration
...
Metabolism: as size increases
SA increases= SA:V ration decreases
Volume increase= Metabolic rate decreases
O2 intake increases= body heat escapes more slowly
Nomogram
graphical tool to determine SA using weight and heigh
Reflex arc steps:
1. receptor
2. sensory afferent neuron
3. integration center
4. motor efferent neuron
5. effector
Reflex
single synapse on spinal cord
monosynaptic
shorter latency period
Reaction
multiple synapse with CNS
polysynaptic
longer latency period
Number is synapses involved
In reflex fewer then reaction
In reaction greater then reflex
Find latency period on graph
M on beginning of Stimulus (top graph)
X on beginning of angle (Bottom graph)
all in seconds,
Find Angle of rotation on graph
M on beginning of angle
X on peak of angle
Magnitude (degrees)
Adaptation
occurs sensory receptors change their sensitivity to the stimulus
Ex: fingers in water
Phasic receptors
rapid adapt; cold pool,
Tonic receptors
takes awhile to adjust
Referred Pain
stimulation of one part of the body gives rise to sensations that are seen localized in different parts of the body
Ex: elbow and pinky and heart attacks
Dermatome
referred pains areas on skin that supply nerves from a single spinal root; "false pain
Air conduction
normal way of hearing
Boone conduction
cranial bones directly to cochlea
if patient can't hear through air conduction but CAN through bone conduction:
problem exists through outer or middle ear (inflammation)
if patient can't hear through air or bone:
problem exists within the inner ear (cochlear damage)
Rods
non-color vision; discriminative
greater perceptive field
Cones
color
smaller receptive fields
Receptive fields
How many points felt tells how many receptive fields there are, more sensitive area has multiple receptive fields ( so you would only feel one sensation), less sensitive more spread out so you would feel both spots.
1 felt= 1 receptive fields
2 felt= 2 re
Taste
need saliva to dissolve sugars to be able to taste; with a dry tongue you cannot taste
Temporal summation
increasing the number of times stimulus occurs every second one at a time
increasing frequency
leads to tetany
sequential
Motor Unit recruitment
increasing stimulus will increase the number of motor units
eventually maximum of motor units will be stimulated
instantaneous
Spatial recruitment
multiple motor units are recruited at the same time to increase the force
increase the voltage
Frequency of a twitch
used to increase or decrease multiple twitches
Voltage of a twitch
used to increase or decrease a single twitch
Finding force of a single twitch on graph
M at bottom of force
X at peak of force
in FU units
For a single twitch...
the contraction time is shorter than relaxation time
To calculate the % in strength go muscle contraction:
largest peak- smallest peak / smallest peak x 100
To calculate the frequency of stimulation:
1/ i x 1000 where the i is the interval given from the graph or you will find from bottoms of the two peaks
(UNITS: Stimulus/seconds)
R-R value is found by:
tops of the two peaks of QRS's
seconds
Heart rate:
1/ R-R x 60 = beats/mins
Pulse wave velocity:
length of arm / M at bottom of S wave and X at the start of the pulse wave
(UNITS:meters/second )
Normal is between 4 to 9
Atrial depolarization
P wave
Ventricular depolarization
QRS wave
Ventricular repolarization
T wave
Systolic pressure
first sound, top number, contracts
Diastolic pressure
second sound, bottom number, rests between beats, refilling
Pulse Pressure=
systolic - diastolic
MAP= mean arterial pressure :
diastolic + 1/3 pulse pressure
Korotkoff sounds
heard by sphygmomanometer between systolic and diastolic pressures
Vital capacity
TV+IRV+ERV
Respiration rate
60 sec/ i where i is the interval time between each normal breath
breath/min
IRV
peak of normal breath to peak of big breath
Tidal Volume
one normal breath
peak of normal breath to bottom of normal breath
ERV
bottom of normal breath and the bottom of the big breath
Spirometer
instrument used to produce the above lung volumes
Total lung capacity(TLC)
TV+IRV+ERV+RV
what happens to TV and IRV after exercising
the TV increases and IRV decreases b/c the VC stays the same
Obstructed lung disease
<60%; decreases ability to empty lungs(exhale)
asthma and emphysema
Restrictive lung disease
>90% decreased ability to fill lungs(inhale)
pulmonary fibrosis
Normal breath %
80%
Breath-hold time
decreases after exercise(increases CO2) and increases after hyperventilation (decreases CO2)
Protein in urine
too large to be filter at glomerulus
Glucose in urine
reabsorbed in bloodstream, usually because sugar is in the blood and related to diabetes because insufficient insulin
Ketones in urine
inadequate levels of carbs and patients with diabetes
Hemoglobin
usually with women who are menstruating
Specific Gravity
use refractor to measure, look where colors line up
between 1.001-1.03 is normal
Higher Specific gravity
greater solute to water ration
yellow, dark yellow
1.02-1.03
dehydration
Lower Specific gravity
greater water solute ration
diluted, clear, pale yellow
1.002-1.008: closer to 1 which is water
hydrated
Carb digestion
mouth
Protein digestion
stomach
lipid digestion
duodenum
Carb/protein/fat absorption
jejunum
gall bladder
secretes bile, acids breakdown of triglycerides, lips, and fat to amino acids
pancreas
secretes pancreatic enzymes that break down carbs, proteins, and fats
peristalsis
a series of wave-like muscle contractions that moves food to different processing stations in the digestive tract. the process begins in the esophagus when a bolus of food is swallowed
Mouth
Digested: Start- Starch
Absorbed: nothing
Esophagus
Digested: starch
Absorbed: nothing
Stomach
Digested: starch and the start if protein
Absorbed: nothing
Duodenum
For a normal meal and one with added dietary fiber: (Digested starch, Protein, and lipid start, Absorbed: nothing)
For a person with pancreatic insufficiency: (Digested and absorbed nothing)
If Gallbladder Disease: ( digested; starch and Protein, Absorbed
Jejunum
***Main place for Absorption
Normal mean and meal with DF= (Digested: Finish starch, protein, lipid. Absorbed:mono/disaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids)
Pancreatic: ( nothing digested or absorbed)
Gallbladder: ( Digested: finish: starch and protein, Absorbed: mono/disaccharides. A
ileum
Digested: nothing
Absorbed: Bile Salts
Large Intestine
Digested: nothing
Absorbed: Water
Waste Elimination
Normal: nothing
DF: Fiber, water, toxins
P: starch, proteins, lipids
G: lipids