Psychology (general definition)
scientific study of human behavior and mental function
Social psychology
scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context
Scientific method (general description)
systematic observation, description, and measurement
ABCs
Feel = Affect
Behave = Behavior
Think = Cognition
Doise's Levels of Analysis: Intrapersonal
within individuals
Doise's Levels of Analysis: Interpersonal
between individuals
Doise's Levels of Analysis: Intra Group
within a group
Doise's Levels of Analysis: Inter Group
between groups
Construals
people interpret situations and behaviors they observe
We use both conscious as well as unconscious processing to make construals
cognitive heuristics
mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb
Representativeness heuristic
related to stereotypes and other biased views of people
Probability is determined by a subjective judgment of similarity with other situations/people
Can lead to overestimation / underestimation
Who was the founder of social psychology?
First three social psychology textbook authors: the English Psychologist William McDougall
(1908), and two Americans Edward Ross (1908), and Floyd Allport (1924)
Who had the most dramatic impact on social psychology?
Probably Adolf Hitler
Caused people around the world to become desperate for answers to social psychological questions
Kurt Lewin: interactionist perspective
Behavior is a function of the interaction between the person and the environment
Culture
A system of enduring meanings, beliefs, values, assumptions, institutions, and practices shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Cross-Cultural Research
Used to evaluate the universal generality or cultural specificity of theories and findings
Multicultural Research
Examines racial and ethnic groups within cultures
Behavioral Economics
How psychology, particularly social and cognitive psychology, relates to economic decision making
Open science
A movement to make research materials, methods, hypotheses, and data more transparent,
accessible, and easily shared with researchers from other labs
Why do social psychologists do scientific research?
To predict human behavior
Hindsight bias
People's tendency to be overconfident about whether they could have predicted a given outcome
Basic Research
aims to explain, predict, and describe fundamental bases of behavior
Applied Research
aims to address and answer real-world problems
Theory
Body of related propositions intended to describe some aspect of the world
Theories are usually evaluated in terms of: (3 things)
1) Simplicity (Parsimony)
2) Comprehensiveness
3) Generativity of hypotheses
Hypothesis
Testable prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances
Conceptual variables
Abstract and general
Researcher "thinks up" or "conceptualizes" a
conceptual variable
Example: Intelligence
Operational definitions
Specific procedure for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable
Example: IQ
Construct validity
Is the operational definition a VALID representation of the conceptual variable?
self-report
Participants disclose their thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions
Problems with self-reports
1. Not always accurate and possibly misleading
- Memories for past thoughts or behaviors may be suspect
2. Affected by the way in which questions are
asked
Naturalistic Observation
Monitoring and describing a subject's behavior WITHOUT intervening
advantage of naturalistic observation
Avoid sometimes faulty recollections and distorted interpretations of own behavior
disadvantages of naturalistic observation
1. Cannot draw causal conclusions about behavior, only describe
2. Observation risks altering behavior of the
observed (consent before or after observation?)
3. Raters may disagree
Examples of using technology in research
1. Eye-tracking technology is used to measure exactly where and for how long participants look at particular parts of a stimulus.
2. Brain-imaging technology shows researchers what parts of the brain seem to "light up" or shows increased activity in respo
Advantage of Technology
Avoid sometimes faulty recollections and distorted interpretations of own behavior
Disadvantages of Technology
1. Cannot draw causal conclusions about behavior, only describe
2. Observation risks altering behavior of the
observed (consent before or after observation?)
3. Raters may disagree
4. Construct validity
Descriptive Research
Goal is to describe people and their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
Descriptive Research: Archival Studies
Involves examining existing records
Descriptive Research: Surveys
Involves asking people about their attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors
Population
Group you want to know about
Convenience sample
Taken from some available subgroup in the population; Not random, and therefore may be biased
random sample
Taken at random from the population
Correlational Research
Goal is to determine relationships between variables.
Does not involve random assignment or conditions
Correlation Coefficient
- Measure the strength and direction of the relationship between the variables
- Range from 1.0 to +1.0
- Absolute value indicates strength, positive or negative indicates direction of the relationship
Advantages of Correlational Research
- Can assess associations between variables that cannot be manipulated or induced or would be difficult or unethical to manipulate or induce
- Offers freedom in settings in which the variables are measured
Disadvantages of Correlational Research
- Correlation ? Causation
- self selection
Experimental Research
Research that randomly assigns people to different conditions, thus enabling researchers to make strong inferences about how different conditions affect behavior
Two essential characteristics of experiments
1. Researcher controls experimental procedures, manipulating the variables of interest.
2. Participants are randomly assigned to the different manipulations.
Independent variable
Variable that is manipulated, hypothesized to cause an outcome
Subject variables
Variables that represents a pre-existing difference between participants
Dependent variable
Variable that is measured, hypothesized to be affected by an independent variable
random sampling
concerns how individuals are selected to be in a study
Random assignment
Assigning research participants to different groups randomly
Control condition
Condition comparable to the experimental condition in every way except for that it lacks the one "ingredient" hypothesized to produce the expected effect on the dependent variable
Advantages of Laboratory Experiments (3 things)
1. Conducted in settings in which environment can
be controlled
2. Participants can be carefully studied
3. Control groups allow us to draw causal inferences with a good degree of certainty
Disadvantage of Laboratory Experiments
Can the causal inferences made from studying
people in a laboratory generalize to the real
world?
Experimental Research: Field/Quasi-Experiments
An experiment set up in the real world, often with participants who are not aware that they are in a study of any kind
Lacks random assignment to treatment or control group often b/c of ethical constraints
Advantages of Field/Quasi-Experiments
Generalizability
People more likely to behave naturally in the
real world than they are in the lab
Disadvantage of Field/Quasi-Experiments
Less control than a laboratory study
Experimental Research: Natural Experiment
Naturally occurring events or phenomena
having somewhat different conditions that can
be compared
Meta-Analysis
Set of statistical procedures for combining the
results of individual studies to measure the
overall reliability and strength of a particular
effect
Internal Validity
Confidence that only the manipulated variable could have produced the result
Threats to Internal Validity
- not using random assignment
- Expectations (Experimenter expectancy, Demand characteristics)
Experimenter expectancy
Experimenter's expectations about the results
of an experiment affect her/his behavior
toward a participant and thereby influence
the participants responses
Demand characteristics
Participants form an interpretation of the
purpose of the experiment and
unconsciously change their behavior to fit
that interpretation
External Validity
Experimental setup closely resembles real life
situations (i.e., exhibits "realism") so that results can safely be generalized to real life situations
- Laboratory experiments often tradeoff an increase in internal validity (stemming from control) for a d
Mundane realism
Extent to which the research setting resembles the real world setting of interest
Experimental Realism
Degree to which the experimental setting and procedures are real and involving to the participant
Culture and Research Methods
Research findings in one culture do not necessarily generalize to another
- When research does not generalize across
cultures, it can reveal important differences
between those cultures
Attachment Theory
A strong emotional and physical attachment to at least one primary caregiver is critical to personal development
Strange Situation" Protocol
Mother leaves baby alone with a "stranger"
Then, she returns and the experimenter observes how the baby interacts during their reunion
Strange Situation: Secure attachment
Plays freely; engages with the stranger; is upset when the mother leaves and happy to see her return
Strange Situation: Anxious-ambivalent attachment
Doesn't explore; distress when mother leaves; displays anger or ambivalence when she returns
Strange Situation: Anxious-avoidant attachment
Doesn't explore; Baby ignores the mother when she departs and returns (avoiding interaction as a mask for distress)
Cross-cultural issues with Mary Ainsworth's attachment theory
Assumes the most important attachment
relationship occurs between a mother and her
infant; However, in many cultures infant care is
distributed across a network of relatives
Ethics in Social Psychology
Researchers have a moral and legal
responsibility to abide by ethical principles
Virtually every study now has to be evaluated
for its ethics by other people before the study
can be conducted
Deception
Providing participants with false information about experimental procedures
- Can add to realism
- Ethical issues
Confederates
People that act like they are participants but really are working for experimenter
Current Policies and Procedures
Role of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)
Importance of informed consent
Necessity for debriefing
debriefing
At the end of their participation, participants are informed of:
- The nature of the research
- All procedures, including an explanation of exactly what happened and why
- The purpose of the research
- Any deceptions that were used
Ethics and Consent Online
Loss of privacy has opened the window for corporations, marketers, and researchers to peek in to record actions in ways that raise new questions about ethics
Consent given when they agree to its terms of
service
Self-schemas
Beliefs and feelings about oneself
Derived from past experience
Guide processing of self-relevant information
Individual self-schemas
Beliefs about our unique personal traits, abilities,
preferences, tastes, talents, etc.
Relational self-schemas
Beliefs about our identities in specific relationships
Collective self-schemas
Beliefs about our identities as members of social groups to which we belong
first step in the development of a self-concept
recognition
Introspection
Self-knowledge through looking inward at one's own thoughts and feelings
Introspection Limitation Example: Affective Forecasting
Predicting responses to future emotional events
- People are typically bad at this
- We tend to overestimate the strength and duration of our emotional reactions
- WHY? Underestimate psychological coping
mechanisms and focus on effects of single life even
Recency rule
Adults typically report more events from the recent than the distant past
Exceptions to Recency Rule
The Reminiscence bump: Adolescence and early adulthood
Tendency to remember transitional firsts (ex: first day of college)
Autobiographical Memories - Example Limitation: Self-Inflation
We are often motivated to distort the past in ways that are self-inflated
Self-Perception Theory (Bem, 1972)
When internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain insight by observing their own behavior
Intrinsic motivation
Originates in factors within a person
Extrinsic motivation
Originates in factors outside the person
Overjustification effect
Tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for
activities that have become association with
extrinsic factors
Looking-Glass Self
(Cooley, 1902) Other people serve as a "mirror" in which we see ourselves
- Our own beliefs about what others think of our social selves
Social Comparison Theory
(Festinger) People evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others.
When do we turn to others for comparative information?
When objective information is not available
With whom do we choose to compare ourselves?
People that are similar in relevant ways (e.g., gender)
Independent self-construal
Self is distinct and separate from others
Interdependent self-construal
Self is embedded in relationships, roles, and duties
Social Class as a Cultural Influence
Social class is used to categorize people within a culture who have in common a low-, working-, middle-, or upper-class socioeconomic status.
In Western countries, people with more income, education, and status tend to have many opportunities to exhibit i
self esteem
An evaluative component of the self.
Made up of many self-schemas. Some parts
are judge more favorably or seen more clearly
or as more important than other parts.
Sociometer theory (Leary and Baumeister)
People are inherently social animals.
The desire for self-esteem is driven by a more primitive need to connect with others.
Terror management theory (Greenberg, Solomon,
and Pyszczynski)
Humans are biologically programmed for life and
self-preservation.
We are conscious of�and terrified by�the inevitability of our own death <- self-esteem helps us to manage this terror
Satisfying the need for self-esteem is critical to
our entire outlook
Positive self-esteem
Tend to be happy, healthy, productive, successful
Negative self-esteem
Tend to be depressed, pessimistic about the future, prone to failure
Contingencies of Self-Worth
People choose environments where they can excel
Important to base sense of self-worth on performance in many domains
When: "I excel" Contingencies of Self-Worth
An account of self-esteem that maintains that self-
esteem is contingent on successes and failures in
domains on which a person has based his or her self- worth.
When: "Others' think I'm great" Sociometer Hypothesis
Maintains that self-esteem is an internal, subjective index or marker of the extent to which a person is included or looked on favorably by
others
When: My "Actual Self" matches my "Ideal Self" Self-Discrepancy Theory
Actual self versus ought self versus ideal self
Traits that describe the kind of person you would like to be
Actual Self
Self-concept; describe the kind of person you think you ought to be
Ought Self
Traits that would enable you to meet your sense of duty, obligation, and responsibility
Self Discrepancy Theory Ideal
Traits that describe the kind of person you would like to be
Self-Regulation
Processes that people use to initiate, alter, and
control their behavior in the pursuit of goals
Including the ability to resist short-term awards
that thwart the attainment of long-term goals
High Self-Esteem: Good or Bad?
High self-esteem is definitely positively correlated with positive outcomes
Limits of Self-Regulation
Self-regulation fatigue: Sees self-control as a limited inner resource that can temporarily be depleted by usage (Muraven and Baumeister)
Psychological factors can counteract self-
regulation fatigue.
Choking
A paradoxical type of failure caused by trying too hard and thinking too much
Ironic processes
The harder you try to inhibit a thought, feeling, or behavior, the less likely you are to succeed
Self-awareness theory
Self-focused attention can lead people to notice
self-discrepancies, thereby motivating either an
escape from self-awareness or a change in
behavior.
Self-Serving Construals and the Better-Than-Average Effect
Most people think they are above average on
various trait and ability dimensions
Implicit Egotism
Humans have an unconscious preference for things they associate with themselves.
Self-Serving beliefs
Taking credit for positive events or outcomes, but blaming outside factors for negative events or outcomes
Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRG)
A self-serving cognition whereby an individual associates themselves with known successful others such that the winner's success becomes the individual's own accomplishment
Downward Social Comparisons
Making comparisons with others who are inferior to, or less fortunate than, oneself
Are Positive Illusions Adaptive?
- People preserve their self esteem through
mechanisms of self-enhancement.
- Individuals who are depressed or low in self-
esteem have more realistic views of themselves
than do most others who are better adjusted.
- Positive illusions promote happiness,
Self-Handicapping
Behaviors designed to sabotage one's own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure - helps us maintain our self-esteem
People construct obstacles that impede their own success in order to protect their self-esteem
Defensive pessimism
Set low performance expectations, regardless of previous performance
Social Perception
Process by which people come to understand
one another
Observation: Faces
Impressions are first influenced by different
aspects of a person's physical appearance
We prejudge people based on facial features
Baby-Faced" Adults
(Zebrowitz & Montepare, 2005)
Large round eyes, high eyebrows, round cheeks,
large forehead, smooth skin, rounded chin
Perceived as warm, kind, naive, weak, honest, and
submissive
Humans are "programmed" to respond positively
to infantile features
We asso
Unfamiliar Faces
Unfamiliar faces are judged as less trustworthy
Scripts/Schemas
We often have "scripts" or preset notions about certain types of situations
Help us understand other people's verbal and nonverbal behavior
One way schemas influence us:
We sometimes see what we expect to see in a particular situation
Mind perception
The process by which people attribute humanlike mental states to various animate and inanimate objects, including other people.
Nonverbal behavior
a silent language that helps us identify a person's inner states
Snap Judgments: Thin-Slicing of Behaviors
People often make behavior-based judgments very, very quickly
Other Nonverbal Cues Used to Infer Emotion/Intention
Body language, Eye contact or gaze, Physical touch
Why Do We Have Difficulty Detecting Deception?
Mismatch between the behavioral cues that actually signal deception and the ones used to detect deception.
Words: Cannot be trusted
Face: Controllable
Body: Somewhat more revealing than face
Voice: Most revealing cue - but we don't always/ can't always pa
Causal Attribution
Linking an event to a cause
e.g., inferring that a personality trait was
responsible for a behavior and/or inferring that a
person was "forced" to do something based on a
factor that is external to that person
Covariation Theory
Covariation principle: Behavior should be attributed to potential causes that co-occur with the behavior
Covariation: Consensus
How are other people reacting to the same stimulus?
Less consensus = more likely to be the person
Covariation: Distinctiveness
Does the person react the same to different stimuli?
More stability = more likely to be the person
Covariation: Consistency
Is the person's behavior consistent over time?
More stability = more likely to be the person
Attributional Biases
- We are limited in our ability to process all relevant information.
- We lack the kinds of training needed to employ fully the principles of attribution theory.
- We often don't bother to think carefully about the attributions we make.
- Not enough time,
Availability Heuristic
A type of cognitive heuristic that means the "tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind
Base-rate fallacy
People tend to ignore information about the relative frequency of events or of members of different categories in the population.
the False-consensus effect
We overestimate the extent to which others share our own opinions, attributes, and behaviors
Because these opinions, attributes, and behaviors are easy for us to access and we socialize with others who share them!
Fundamental Attribution Error
When we explain other people's behavior we tend to:
- Overestimate the role of personal factors, and
- Overlook the impact of situations
Impression formation
Process of integrating information about a person to form a coherent impression
Information Integration: Perceiver Characteristics
Perceivers vary from one another in the kinds of impressions they form of others.
Perceivers also vary across time - temporary mood can play a role in impression formation
Information Integration: Situation Characteristics
The situation can affect mood and our perceptions - Embodiment effects
- Perceptions of others impacted by our physical positions, orientations, sensations, and movements
Implicit Personality Theory
Certain "central" traits impact our overall impressions of others more than other traits...
The Primacy Effect
The tendency for information presented early in a
sequence to have more impact on impressions than on the information presented later.
Once perceivers think they have formed an accurate impression of someone, they tend to pay less attention to subsequent
Change-of-meaning hypothesis
after initial impression made, other information interpreted in light of that
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to seek out, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs
Confirmatory Hypothesis Testing
Perceivers set in motion a vicious cycle: Thinking
someone has a certain trait, they engage in a one-
sided search for information.
People can be blinded by their existing beliefs.
Belief perseverance
A tendency to retain to one's initial beliefs even after they had been discredited.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Process by which one's expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations
Problems with Social Perception
- Our social perceptions often depart from the
ideals of logic and often exhibit bias
- We have little awareness of our limitations, leading us to feel overconfident in our judgments