individualistic vs collectivistic culture affect self-concept
individualistic cultures - rights and concerns of one person. leads to us thinking of ourselves as more independent
collectivistic cultures - stress the importance of a community, will lead to ourselves thinking we are interdependent and reliant upon othe
Know Eagly's social role theory and its consequences.
gender stereotypes form from the division of labor amongst genders
as a result, gender stereotypes were reinforced and women acted more communally in positions of power
self-concept vs working self-concept
sc - more comprehensive evaluation of oneself, largely based on how a person sees themselves.
wsc - immediate experience of self that is limited to the amount of personal info that can be processed cognitively at a given time
downward and upward comparisons
d - when people compare themselves to those who are worse off then ourselves. centered around making ourselves feel better about our abilities
u - compare ourselves to those in a better position than us. focus on the desire to improve our current level of
social comparison theory
the idea that people have the innate drive to compare themselves to one another.
better than average effect
the finding that most people think they are above average on various personality trait and ability dimensions
self-perception theory
The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs
facial feedback hypothesis
The hypothesis that emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify
two-factor theory of emotion
event --> arousal --> label --> emotional experience
Prevented people from becoming angry by providing a nonemotional explanation for why they felt aroused
Made participants experience a very different emotion by changing the most plausible explanation fo
excitation transfer
Arousal from an initial event and something else happens and the arousal from the first event transfers from the second event even though you are perfectly aware of what happens at the first event
misattribution of arousal
The tendency for people to incorrectly label the source of the arousal that they are experiencing
example - some people may be scared but misattribute their feelings to a romantic arousal
red dot test
tests whether or not you have a sense of yourself.
place a red dot on your face, look in the mirror, humans after the age of 1.5 are able to notice there is a red dot on their face and react to it
the other animals that can do it are chimps, orangutans, a
independent self vs interdependent self
ind. - internal attributes, such as traits, abilities, values, and attitudes as central to their sense of self
int. - view their close relationships, social roles, and group memberships as central to their sense of self.
self-reference effect
tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance
executive functioning
The ability to set priorities or make decisions.
self-regulation
the exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards
self-regulatory resource model
Self control is a limited resource which can be used up until it is replenished and is reduced by stress & fatigue.
most effective when we are relaxed, rested, and undistracted
when you try not to think about something, you will think about it
people will
hot and cool self-regulation
h - driven by emotions (Can help us make judgements and tell us when something is worrisome that the rational brain won't always recognize)
c - rational cognitions (telling self you'll have the temptation sometime later)
ironic processing
the idea that if we try not to think about something we are more likely to actually think abt it.
minimize ironic processing
Try not to get stressed out or try not to get tired or distracted
Stop trying to control our thoughts
self-awareness theory
noticing ourselves and our behavior leads us to judging our behavior according to our internal standards
if the discrepancy between person's behavior and standards can't be reduced, the person might need to modify one or the other
if a person is pursuing
over justification effect
Tendency for people to see their behavior as compelled by extrinsic forces and thereby discount intrinsic motivation
minimize over justification effect
Extrinsic rewards work well if mildly praise effort & increased competence
� Message = gained competence through hard work
� Take care not to cause apprehension about being evaluated
Do not compare to peers
ingratiation
trying to influence another individual by becoming more likable to said target
slime effect
likable behaviors towards superiors induce suspicion of ulterior motives, which is confirmed when dislikable behaviors are observed
self-enhancement
behaviors that an individual engages to elicit a more favorable response from others
self-handicapping
Excuses
� If you make up too many excuses, they can become a self-fulfilling prophecy
Obstacles
� Things that you put in the way that tend to be bigger than just small excuses.
cognitive dissonance theory
if we have two cognitions that are inconsistent, then we experience an aversive state called dissonance (a drive that we seek to reduce). This is true if and only if the inconsistency is salient and the cognitions and behavior are seen as freely chosen
how to reduce cognitive dissonance
� Changing behavior to be consistent with the dissonant cognition
� Changing one of the dissonant cognitions
� Adding new cognitions that are consonant with the behavior
� Reduce saliency of inconsistency
Elliot Aronson cognitive dissonance
� Must involve behavior
� Must involve self-esteem
� Another path to reducing dissonance: self-affirmation
counter attitudinal advocacy
� Festinger came up with the most boring test possible. Had a bored with bolts sticking it out of it and the participant had to turn each bolt half a turn and then start over again and do it again until the bolt was all the way in and then do it the rever
justifying effort
� People were asked to join a group to have conversations about sex. 1/3 were told it was important they were comfortable talking about sex, there was an easy, hard, and no initiation condition.
� The severe initiation condition participants had a much hi
effects of high self-esteem
come to value themselves and think of themselves as worthy partners and capable problem solvers. They develop a healthy balance of liking who they are, but also recognizing that there are ways they can continue to grow and to develop.
effects of culture on self-esteem
for individualists, it results in the fact that they believe that they should be on their own and it is high
for collectivists, value their counterparts over themselves and it's lower
self-compassion
(a) self kindness, respond with kindness and support, not scolding, when notice a mistake or see a limitation.
(b) Accept that suffering and imperfection are
(3) Accept negative thoughts and emotions rather than denying, analyzing or fighting them.
classical conditioning
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
descriptive norms
People's perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others
injunctive norms
people's perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others
chameleon effect
refers to nonconscious mimicry of the postures, mannerisms, facial expressions, and other behaviors of one's interaction partners, such that one's behavior passively and unintentionally changes to match that of others in one's current social environment.
social contagion
o cognitions, emotions, and/or behaviors spread uncontrollably and rapidly across people
� Yawning, laughter, applause, moods
� Orson wells' 1938 radio play of War of the Worlds
Mass psychogenic illness
informational social influence
� to be accurate
� greater in more important situation
� greater in more ambiguous situations
� greater during a crisis
� greater if others are clearly more expert
normative social influence
� follow group norms: wanted to be liked and accepted
� greater if bigger group
� greater if group is important to person
� greater if person has low self-esteem
� reduced if being accurate is important
� reduced if one has an ally
resisting conformation
o is this what I really think/want
o is there any objective evidence to support the other's position
o is the other much more of a legitimate expert than I am
o if I behave the way they do, will it go against my common sense or against my sense of right a
attitude
o enduring evaluation, positive or negative, of people, objects, or ideas.
o Consist of three components
� Affective - emotional
� Behavioral - what it does for what we do in terms of actions
Cognitive - how we think about things
explicit attitudes
generally aware of
implicit attitudes
generally subconscious
Yale group study
o Yale group studies
� Who
� Credible
o Expertise
o Trustworthiness
� Attractive
� Similar to target
� What (the message itself)
� Does it seem to be designed to persuade?
o Most effective if it doesn't seem like you are trying to persuade someone to chan
heuristic-systematic persuasion/elaboration likelihood models
� If target person is motivated (the message is personally relevant) and is under low cognitive load �systematic/central route processing will be used
� Good, intelligent arguments
� If not, heuristics/peripheral route processing will be used
� Use simple
consequences on basing attitudes on careful analysis and not peripheral clues
...
emotional effects on attitude change
� People want to preserve a good mood
� Fear-arousing appeals
� Frying an egg = brain on drugs
� Such a thing as too much fear and too little fear.
� Culture, emotions, and persuasion
Cognitively-based vs affectively-based attitudes
inoculation
� Exposing people to small doses of the argument we want them to resist
� Resisting peer pressure
forewarning
� Being alert to product placement
reactance
� When people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior
� Cultural effects
connections between attitude and behavior
o La Piere (1934)
� 92% of people said they wouldn't serve Chinese people.
� Graduate student showed up going against all current stereotypes
o Predicting spontaneous behavior
o Enhancing attitude-behavior consistency
� Attitude is strong
� No conflict am
what happens when things happen too fast to allow for reasoned action
o Willingness to engage in behavior of that situation
� Situation cues may overcome attitudes
emotional appeals
� Sometimes just associational
� Can even create a need that didn't previously exist
puffery
� Same thing as creative license
subliminal advertising
throwing an advertisement in to something we are watching so that we don't realize we noticed it but subconsciously we did and want it now
stereotype threat
� Apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype
Sherif's auto kinetic effect
looked to prove that people conform to group norms when put in ambiguous situations.
put a dot of light in a dark room and moved it around, tested subjects on how far they thought the dot moved. the subjects were tested in groups of 3 and the results show
Asch's line judgement experiment
believed the main issue with sherif's experiment was there was no correct answer
tested the extent to which social pressure could cause an individual to conform
naive participant was in a room with 7 confederates. each person in room had to say out loud w
milgram's obedience study
An experiment in which Stanley Milgram found that people will usually obey an authority, even if they might think what they are doing is wrong.
they would shock the confederate if the authority figure told them to, despite not wanting to harm said confede
Zimbardo's Prison Experiment
Done at Stanford; assigned a group of students to play either the role of prison guard or prisoner; prisoners were locked up in the basement of the psychology building, and the guards were put in charge of their treatment - students took their assigned ro
1. What are the consequences of basing attitudes on careful analysis as opposed to peripheral cues?
sometimes want to use peripheral because people may not understand the full argument and thus the careful analysis could sway them either way. only use careful analysis if they are well aware of both sides of the argument