Anthropology - How evolution works

Describe why our modern understading of the diversity of life is based on the ideas of charles darwin

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Explain how competition, variation, and heritability lead to evolution by natural selection

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Explain why natural selection sometimes causes species to become better adapted to their enviornments

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Explain why natural selection can produce change or cause species to remain the same over time

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Describe how natural selection can produce very complex adaptations such as the human eye

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Assess why natural selection usually works at the level of the indicidual, not at the level of the group or species

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Adaptations

A feature of an organism created by the process fo natural selection

Natural Selection

The process that produces adaptation. Natural selection is based on the postulates: the availability of resources is limited, organisms vary in the ability to survive and reproduce, and traits that influence survival and reproduction are transmitted from

Morphology

The form and structure of an organism also a field of study that focuses on the form and structure of organisms

Equilibrium

A steady state in which the composition of the population does not change

Stabilizing Selection

Selection pressures that favor average phenotypes. Stabilizing selection reduces the amount of variation in the population but does not alter the mean value of the trait

Traits

A characteristic of an organism

Characters

A trait or attribute of the phenotype of an organism

Species

A group of organisms classified together at the lowest level of taxonomic hierarchy. Biologists disagree about how to define a species

Stasis

A stare or period of stability during which little or no evolutionary change in a lineage occupies

Fecundity

Biological capacity to reproduce in humans fecundity may be greater than fertility when people limit family size

Continuous Variation

Phenotype variation which there is a continuum of types height is an example

Discontinuous Variation

Phenotypic variation in which there is a discrete number of phenotypes with no intermediate types pea color is an example

Convergence

The evolution of similar adaptations in unrelated species. The evolution of camera type eyes in both vertebrates and mollusks is an example

Placental Mammals

A mammal that gives birth to lice young that developed in the uterus and were nourished by blood delivered to a placenta

Marsupials

A mammal that gives birth to live young that continue their development in a pouch equipped with mammary glands, marsupials include kangaroos and opossums

Blending Inheritance

A model of inheritance widely accepted during the 19th century in which hereditary material of the mother and father was thought to combine irreversibly in the offspring

Describe how experiments by Gregor Mendel revealed the logic of inheritance

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Explain how Mendel's laws follow from the machinery of cell replication

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Explain why genes affecting different traits are sometimes linked

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Explain how the properties of DNA are consistent with the roles of genes in inheritance

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Describe how genes control the structure of proteins and influence the properties of organisms

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Explain how gene regulation allows the same genes to control the development and function of many different parts of the body

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Variants

The particular form of a trait

Crosses

A mating between chosen parents

F0 Generation

A system for keeping track of generations in breeding experiments, this is the initial generation.

F1 Generation

A system for keeping track of generations in breeding experiments, this is the initial generation. The offspring of f0 constitute f1 generation

F2 Generation

A system for keeping track of generations in breeding experiments, this is the initial generation. The offspring of f1 constitute the f2 generation

Genes

A segment of the chromosome that produces a recognizable effect on phenotype and segregated as a unit during gamete formation

Gametes

Eggs and sperm

Independent Assortment

Each gene at a single locus on a piece of homologue chromosomes is equally likely to be trans midfield when gamers are formed.

Chromosome

A linear body in the cell nucleus that carries the gene and appears during dell division staining cells with dyes reveals that different chromosomes are marked by different banding patterns

Nucleus

A distinct part of the cell that contains the chromosomes eukaryotes all have nuclear cells whereas prokaryotes do not

Mitosis

Process of the division of somatic cells through which new diploid cells are created

Diploid

Referring to cells containing pairs of homologous chromosomes in which one chromosome of each pair is inherited from each parent also referring to organisms whose somatic cells are diploid

Meiosis

Process of cell division in which haploid gametes (egg and sperm) are created

Haploid

A cell with only one copy of each chromosome asexual

Homologous Chromosomes

Sets of chromosomes have the same genetic loci but often these loci contain different alleles human cells contain 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes one member of each pair comes from the mother and the father

Zygote

A cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm

Alleles

One of two or more alternative forms of a gene

Homozygous

Referring to a diploid organism whose chromosomes carry two copies of the same allele at single genetic locus organisms that are homozygous are called homozygotes

Heterozygous

Referring to a diploid organism whose cells carry two alleles for particular genetic locus organisms that are heterozygous are called heterozygotes

Genotype

Combination of an allele that characterizes an individual at some set of genetic loci

Phenotype

Observable characteristics of organisms individuals with the same phenotype May have different genotypes

Dominant

Describing an allele that results in the same phenotype whether in the homozygous or the heterozygous

Recessive

Describing an allele that is expressed in the phenotype only when it is in the homozygous state

Punnet Square

A diagram that uses gene or allele frequencies to calculate the genotypic frequencies for the next generations

Recombination

The creation of new genotypes as a result of the random segregation of chromosomes and of crossing over

Locus

The position that a particular gene occupies on a chromosome

Genome

All the genetic information carried by an organism

Linked

Referring to genes located on the same chromosome the closer together two loci are the more likely they are to be linked

Unlinked

Referring to genes on different chromosomes

Crossing Over

The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis crossing over causes recombination of genes carried on the same chromosome

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Deoxyribonucleic acid the molecule that carries hereditary information in almost all living organisms DNA consists of two very long sugar-phosphate Naciones called strands to which the bases adenine cytosine guanine and thymine are bound hydrogen bonds be

Bases

One of the four molecules adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine that are bound to the DNA backbone. Different sequences of bases encode the information necessary for protein synthesis

Adenine

One of the four bases of the DNA molecules the complimentary base of adenine is thymine

Guanine

One of the four bases of the DNA molecule the complimentary base of guanine is cytosine

Cytosine

One of the four bases of the DNA molecule the complimentary base of cytosine is guanine

Thymine

One of the four bases of the DNA molecule the complimentary base of thymine is adenine

Protein Coding Genes

Genes that encode instructions for making proteins

Enzymes

A protein that serves as a catalyst increasing the rate at which particular chemical reactions of four at a given temperature enzyme can control the chemical composition of cells causing some chemical of cells by causing some chemical reactions to of four

Regulatory Genes

A DNA sequence that regulates the expression of a structural gene often by binding to an activator or repressor

Biochemical Pathways

Any of the chains of chemical reactions by which organisms regulate their structure and chemistry

Proteins

A large molecule that consists is a long chain of amino acids proteins are enzyme catalyst others perform structural functions

Amino Acids

Molecules that are linked in a chain to form proteins there are 20 amino acids all of which share the same molecular backbone but have a different side chain

Primary Structure

A sequence of amino acid that makeup protein

Tertiary Structure

Three dimensional folded shape of a protein

Hemoglobin

A protein in blood that carries oxygen including two alpha-beta subunits

Sickle Cell Anemia

A serve form of anemia that afflicts people who are homozygous for the sickle cell gene

Codons

A sequence of three DNA bases on the DNA molecule that constitutes one word in the message used to create a specific protein there are 64

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Ribonucleic acid a long molecule that plays several important roles in protein synthesis RNA differs from DNA in that it has a slightly different chemical backbone and it contains the base uracil instead of thymine

Uracil

One of the four bases of the RNA molecule, uracil corresponds to the base thymine in DNA, as with thymine it's the complementary base is adenine

Messenger RNA

A form of RNA that carries specifications for protein synthesis from DNA to the ribosomes

Transfer RNA

A form of RNA that facilitates protein synthesis by first binding to amino acids in the cytoplasms and then binding to the appropriate site on the mRNA molecule

Anticodon

The sequence of bases on a transfer RNA molecule that binds complimentarily a particular codon

Ribosomes

A small organelle composed of protein and nucleus acid that temporarily holds together the messenger RNA and transfer RNAs during protein synthesis

Organelles

A portion of the cell that is enclosed in a meme brand and has a specific function

Prokaryote

Organisms that lack a cell nucleus or separate chromosomes

Eukaryote

Organisms whose cells have cellular organelles cell nuclei and chromosomes

Introns

A segment of the DNA in eukaryotes that are not translated into protein

Exons

A segment of the DNA in eukaryotes that is translated into protein

Repressor

A protein that decreases transcription of a regulated gene

Activator

A protein that increases transcription of a regulated gene

Combinatoral Control

The control of gene expression in which more than one regulatory protein is used and expression is allowed only in a specific combination of conditions

Spliceosome

Organelles that space the mRNA in eukaryotes after the introns have been shipped out

Noncoding RNA

Molecules of RNA that do not code for proteins including transfer RNA ribosomal RNA and micro RNA

MicroRNAs

Short segments of RNA that are involved in the translation of mRNA into protein and gene expression. Some are involved in regulating development in complex organisms

Long Noncoding RNAs

RNA molecules are longer than 200 nucleotides. LncRNA has many functions including gene regulation