Philospohy
art of asking questions
Bertrand Russell
point of philosophy is to start simple and end with a paradox
Zeno's Paradox
motion doesn't exist. evidence: distance is never 0
Conceptual Engineering
Studies thought structure
Sober's definition of PHIL
PHIL examines the assumptions we make. It's self-conscious analytical clarification of concepts taken for granted
Metaphysics
study of what there is. What's the world made of? What am I?
Epistemology
Theory of knowledge Whats knowledge? How do I know?
Opiniion
Judgement of something that can't be verified outside the fact I believe them. CAN BE WRONG.
Deductive Arguement
1.Validness 2.Soundness
Validity
1.Assume all premises true 2. Does that force conclusion to be true if yes = valid, if no = invalid
Soundness
1.Valid 2.All premises are actually true
Sky is blue, Grass is green
2+2=4
Sound but invalid
All elephants are whales
All whales are plants
--------------------------
All elephants are plants
Valid but no sound
Conditionals
if-then sentence
antecedent
the if part
consequent
the then part
Contrapositive
If not Q, then not P
logically the same as conditionals
Converse
If Q, then P
NOT logically the same as conditionals
Affirming Antecedent(Modus Ponens)
If I go to concert
then I buy a t-shirt
Most common valid conditional argument
Valid but not sound. Affirms antecedent
i can fly
--------------------------
I can get to JMU from home in 5 minutes
Valid. Denies the consequent
I can't get to JMU from home in 5 minutes
--------------------------
I can't fly
This argument begs the question
I can't fly
--------------------------
I can't get to JMU from home in 5 minutes
Begging the Question
A good argument gives you a reason to accept the conclusion
Objective Statement
Rockies are 10,000 ft tall.
Subjective Statement
I believe the Rockies are 10,000 ft tall.
Redundancy Analysis of Truth
The world is the way the true sentence says it is
snow is white is true = snow is white
Truth is just a word
A Good argument can be....
Not Deductively Valid OR Deductively Valid
Not Deductive valid argument can be....
Abductively strong OR Inductively strong
Types of Inductive Arguments
Analogy, Probable/Statistical Inference, or inference to best explanation
Induction
No validity
Sampling from population and extend results outside sample
Example of Induction
Aspirin 1 relieved Headache 1
Aspirin 2 relieved Headache 2
--------------------------
Therefore, aspirin relieves headaches
Strong Inductive Argument
From that sample, you make an inference from the population
Scientific Inferences
Arrive at universal statements
tested
Representative Sample
1.Sample size 2. Unbiasness
Affect inductive argument strength
Larger Sample size = Stronger Arguement
Random Sample
members of population have an equal chance of being chosen in the sample
won't guarantee sample is unbiased
Abduction
inference to the best explanation
giving an explanation for the observations one made
Draws conclusion on something not observed based on premises that describe observation
Example of Abduction
Sherlock Holmes observing clues, but not the murder
False
True/False: You can build a theory on just predictions
Aspects of Scientific Inference
1.Confirmation 2.Falsification
Surprise Principle
When will an observation give strong evidence for 1 hypothesis, and goes against the other one.
2 Conditions for Surprise Principle
1. If H1 is true, then O would be true 2. If H2 is true, then O is false
Only Game in Town Fallacy
Thinking you're obliged to accept one theory because it's the only one proposed.
Aquinas 4 ways
1.Motion 2.Causality 3.Contingency 4.Properties That Come in Degrees
God is...
1. All-Powerful 2. All-Knowing 3. All-Good
Design Argument
Everything in the universe has a design so there's a designer
Pascal's Wager
Best Bet that God exists because if you do you go to heaven
Bridge of Principles
Observations + Principles = God Exists
1st Way: Motion
there has to be a 1st mover(God)
2nd Way: Causality
Observation: Events occur in natural world, so God Caused first event
Motion Premises
1. In the natural world there are objects in motion
2. In the natural world, objects that are in motion are always caused by objects other than themselves
3. In the natural world, causes must precede their effects
4. In the natural world there are no infi
Birthday Fallacy
everyone has a b-day" deductively implies taht "there is a single day on which everyone was born
Inductive Argument against Premise 2
All events in natural world we've observed have causes
-----------------------------------
All events in natural world have causes
Questions: Sample Size? Is sample represenative
Inferring God from Premise
1. Need to show that ONE supernatural entity is the 1st mover or first cause
2. Need to show supernatural entity is a PKG
3. Need to show holy book views of God
3rd Way
...
Modality
Deals with things that are possible but don't exist
True
Necessity and contingency are objective
posteriori
known from experience, and inductive
Goal-Directed Systems
1. Have a Mind 2. Must be created by being iwth a mind
Global Design Argument
General feature of universe is explained best as a product of intelligent design
Local Design Argument
Specific feature of 1 or more objects is best explained as a product of intelligent design
Paley's Analogy
1. Organisms are intricate
2. Watches are intricate
3. Watches made by intelligent designer
--------------------------------------
Organisms are created by intelligent designer since watchmakers need to be smart
Logical Form of Analogy Argument
1. Object A has property P
2. Object A and similar to degree n
----------------------------------
Object T has property P
David Hume on Design Argument
Watches are metal and go tick-tock
Watch designer has parents, so does God = infinite designers
Theistic Evolution
God>Mindless Evolution process>Observed complex adaption
Atheistic Evolution
Mindless Evolution Process>Complex Adaptions
Creationism
God>Complex Adaptions
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
life evolved from nonlife
Common Descent Hypothesis
all present life have common ancestors
Natural Selection Hypothesis
diversity is the result of natural selection
adapts organisms to their environment
Principle Cause
Principle of Common Cause
Similarity between A and B explained by Hypothesis that have common cause C
Irreducible Complexity
Removal of any essential part would destroy the system's function
Irreducible Complexity Claim
systems can't evolve by natural selection
2 parts of design hypothesis
1. Intelligent designer built organisms 2. What the designer wants to achieve
Design Hypothesis 1
A super-intelligent designer made all complex adaptions in organisms
Design Hypothesis 2
A super-intelligent designer made all complex adaptions in organisms we observe
Design Hypothesis 3
A super-intelligent designer created each species separately
Philospohy
art of asking questions
Bertrand Russell
point of philosophy is to start simple and end with a paradox
Zeno's Paradox
motion doesn't exist. evidence: distance is never 0
Conceptual Engineering
Studies thought structure
Sober's definition of PHIL
PHIL examines the assumptions we make. It's self-conscious analytical clarification of concepts taken for granted
Metaphysics
study of what there is. What's the world made of? What am I?
Epistemology
Theory of knowledge Whats knowledge? How do I know?
Opiniion
Judgement of something that can't be verified outside the fact I believe them. CAN BE WRONG.
Deductive Arguement
1.Validness 2.Soundness
Validity
1.Assume all premises true 2. Does that force conclusion to be true if yes = valid, if no = invalid
Soundness
1.Valid 2.All premises are actually true
Sky is blue, Grass is green
2+2=4
Sound but invalid
All elephants are whales
All whales are plants
--------------------------
All elephants are plants
Valid but no sound
Conditionals
if-then sentence
antecedent
the if part
consequent
the then part
Contrapositive
If not Q, then not P
logically the same as conditionals
Converse
If Q, then P
NOT logically the same as conditionals
Affirming Antecedent(Modus Ponens)
If I go to concert
then I buy a t-shirt
Most common valid conditional argument
Valid but not sound. Affirms antecedent
i can fly
--------------------------
I can get to JMU from home in 5 minutes
Valid. Denies the consequent
I can't get to JMU from home in 5 minutes
--------------------------
I can't fly
This argument begs the question
I can't fly
--------------------------
I can't get to JMU from home in 5 minutes
Begging the Question
A good argument gives you a reason to accept the conclusion
Objective Statement
Rockies are 10,000 ft tall.
Subjective Statement
I believe the Rockies are 10,000 ft tall.
Redundancy Analysis of Truth
The world is the way the true sentence says it is
snow is white is true = snow is white
Truth is just a word
A Good argument can be....
Not Deductively Valid OR Deductively Valid
Not Deductive valid argument can be....
Abductively strong OR Inductively strong
Types of Inductive Arguments
Analogy, Probable/Statistical Inference, or inference to best explanation
Induction
No validity
Sampling from population and extend results outside sample
Example of Induction
Aspirin 1 relieved Headache 1
Aspirin 2 relieved Headache 2
--------------------------
Therefore, aspirin relieves headaches
Strong Inductive Argument
From that sample, you make an inference from the population
Scientific Inferences
Arrive at universal statements
tested
Representative Sample
1.Sample size 2. Unbiasness
Affect inductive argument strength
Larger Sample size = Stronger Arguement
Random Sample
members of population have an equal chance of being chosen in the sample
won't guarantee sample is unbiased
Abduction
inference to the best explanation
giving an explanation for the observations one made
Draws conclusion on something not observed based on premises that describe observation
Example of Abduction
Sherlock Holmes observing clues, but not the murder
False
True/False: You can build a theory on just predictions
Aspects of Scientific Inference
1.Confirmation 2.Falsification
Surprise Principle
When will an observation give strong evidence for 1 hypothesis, and goes against the other one.
2 Conditions for Surprise Principle
1. If H1 is true, then O would be true 2. If H2 is true, then O is false
Only Game in Town Fallacy
Thinking you're obliged to accept one theory because it's the only one proposed.
Aquinas 4 ways
1.Motion 2.Causality 3.Contingency 4.Properties That Come in Degrees
God is...
1. All-Powerful 2. All-Knowing 3. All-Good
Design Argument
Everything in the universe has a design so there's a designer
Pascal's Wager
Best Bet that God exists because if you do you go to heaven
Bridge of Principles
Observations + Principles = God Exists
1st Way: Motion
there has to be a 1st mover(God)
2nd Way: Causality
Observation: Events occur in natural world, so God Caused first event
Motion Premises
1. In the natural world there are objects in motion
2. In the natural world, objects that are in motion are always caused by objects other than themselves
3. In the natural world, causes must precede their effects
4. In the natural world there are no infi
Birthday Fallacy
everyone has a b-day" deductively implies taht "there is a single day on which everyone was born
Inductive Argument against Premise 2
All events in natural world we've observed have causes
-----------------------------------
All events in natural world have causes
Questions: Sample Size? Is sample represenative
Inferring God from Premise
1. Need to show that ONE supernatural entity is the 1st mover or first cause
2. Need to show supernatural entity is a PKG
3. Need to show holy book views of God
3rd Way
...
Modality
Deals with things that are possible but don't exist
True
Necessity and contingency are objective
posteriori
known from experience, and inductive
Goal-Directed Systems
1. Have a Mind 2. Must be created by being iwth a mind
Global Design Argument
General feature of universe is explained best as a product of intelligent design
Local Design Argument
Specific feature of 1 or more objects is best explained as a product of intelligent design
Paley's Analogy
1. Organisms are intricate
2. Watches are intricate
3. Watches made by intelligent designer
--------------------------------------
Organisms are created by intelligent designer since watchmakers need to be smart
Logical Form of Analogy Argument
1. Object A has property P
2. Object A and similar to degree n
----------------------------------
Object T has property P
David Hume on Design Argument
Watches are metal and go tick-tock
Watch designer has parents, so does God = infinite designers
Theistic Evolution
God>Mindless Evolution process>Observed complex adaption
Atheistic Evolution
Mindless Evolution Process>Complex Adaptions
Creationism
God>Complex Adaptions
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
life evolved from nonlife
Common Descent Hypothesis
all present life have common ancestors
Natural Selection Hypothesis
diversity is the result of natural selection
adapts organisms to their environment
Principle Cause
Principle of Common Cause
Similarity between A and B explained by Hypothesis that have common cause C
Irreducible Complexity
Removal of any essential part would destroy the system's function
Irreducible Complexity Claim
systems can't evolve by natural selection
2 parts of design hypothesis
1. Intelligent designer built organisms 2. What the designer wants to achieve
Design Hypothesis 1
A super-intelligent designer made all complex adaptions in organisms
Design Hypothesis 2
A super-intelligent designer made all complex adaptions in organisms we observe
Design Hypothesis 3
A super-intelligent designer created each species separately