When did psychoactive substance use start?
* Indications of psychoactive substance use date back to the beginnings of recorded history and revolve around he use of alcohol and plants with psychoactive properties.
* Alcohol was probably discovered via accidental fermentation (beer and huckleberry w
Fermentation
a combustive process in which yeasts interact with the sugars in plants such as grapes, grains, and fruits to produce an enzyme that converts the sugar into alcohol.
Opium Poppy
a plant cultivated for centuries, primarily in Eurasia, for opium a narcotic that acts as a central nervous system depressant; "joy plant" in the Asian Minor 5000 BC.
Cannabis Sativa
the Indian hemp plant popularly known as marijuana; its resin, flowering tops, leaves, and stem contain the plant's psychoactive substances; 2700 BC in China brewed as tea.
Hashish
a drug produced from the resin that covers the flowers of the cannabis hemp plant; the resin generally contains a greater concentration of the drug's psychoactive properties.
Which drugs were Stone Age people familiar with and why did they use them?
Stone Age people are thought to have been familiar with opium, hashish, and cocaine, and to have used these drugs to produce altered states of consciousness (typically in a religious context) or to prepare themselves for battle.
What drug was used in ancient Central and South America?
Chewing coca leaves (one way to ingest cocaine) is recorded among Indian burial sites in Central and South America as far back as 2500 BC.
What drugs did the Europeans introduce to the new world?
The Europeans brought coffee beans to new world which led to the world-leading supplier of coffee, South America. Also brought distilled alcoholic beverages to the Americas and cannabis to Chile in 1545.
What drugs did the New World introduce to Europe?
The predominate psychoactive substances brought to Europe from the Americas were cocaine (South America), various hallucinogens (Central America), and tobacco (North America), and peyote.
What drugs did Asia introduce to Europe?
The Crusades and the expeditions of Marco Polo exposed Europeans to the drugs (opium and hashish) that were popular in Asian cultures.
Were there a lot of drug restrictions prior to the 20th century?
* There were relatively few restrictions on drug availability or drug use prior to the beginning of the 20th century (except for Islamic law's edict on alcohol consumption).
* Occasional efforts were made to decrease or eliminate certain substances, but t
The Opium Wars
* Between China and Great Britain in the mid-19th century -- Opium Wars.
* By the mid-1800s, millions of Chinese men had become addicted to opium. Most of the opium used in China was cultivated in India and brought to China by British traders.
* Chinese o
Do governments only act to restrict drug use/availability?
No -- Britain fought the Opium Wars against China to keep drug trade open and flourishing.
Narcotic
a central nervous system depressant that contains sedative and pain-relieving compounds.
Was it easy to obtain drugs in the US during the 1800s?
* Into the mid-1800s, there were very few restrictions placed on drug use.
* Drugs such as opium, marijuana, heroin (at the end of the century), and cocaine were easy to obtain without prescription, often at grocery stores or through mail order.
Morphine
* a derivative of opium best known as a potent pain-relieving medication.
* Commonly used, especially during and after the Civil War, and opium, cocaine, and morphine could be obtained in a variety of patent medicines readily available in stores.
Patent Medicines
products that were sold, most often in the 19th century, as medicines that would cure a host of illnesses and diseases.
Laudanum
Opium was frequently taken in liquid form in mixtures such as laudanum (which contained 1 grain of opium to 25 drops of alcohol) and one of its common uses was in calming and quieting babies!
Give a brief history of the beginnings of morphine.
* Morphine, the active agent in opium, was isolated in 1806.
* Named after Morpheus, the god of sleep and dreams, and was used widely during and after the Civil War, its administration greatly facilitated by the introduction of the hypodermic needle in th
Give a brie history of marijuana use in the US from 1800s until now.
* Marijuana also has a long history of use.
* In the 1800s, physicians used liquid extracts of the Cannabis sativa plant as a general all-purpose medication.
* Its non-medical use was much wider in the 1920s, in response to the alcohol Prohibition.
* The
Give a brief history of cocaine use in the US from the 1800s until now.
* Cocaine, a drug whose popularity has fluctuated among drug users in this country.
* Cocaine was used in various tonics and patent medicines in the late 1800s and early 1900s, despite concerns over negative effects associated with its extended use.
* Not
Amphetamines
central nervous system stimulants that act like naturally occurring adrenaline.
Give a brief history of amphetamines in the US from the 1930s until now.
* Widely used to treat depression in the 1930s.
* Also given to soldiers in WWII in the belief that the drug would enhance alertness.
* Obtaining amphetamines through medical outlets was not particularly difficult.
* As concern arose over the dangers inhe
What two substances was the 1950s known for?
1950s = era for two central substances -- minor tranquilizers (esp popular for psychiatric drugs) and solvent inhaling.
Solvent
a substance, usually a liquid or gas, that contains one or more intoxicating components; examples are glue, gasoline, and nonstick-frying pan sprays.
Why are solvents dangerous?
* The problem with solvents was marked in the early 1960s, with solvent inhaling causing deaths in deaths and leading hobby glue producers to remove the two most toxic solvents - benzene and carbon tetrachloride - from their products.
* "Sudden Sniffing D
LSD
a psychoactive substance that was known as the drug of the 1960s
LSD was banned in 1967 and its use waned considerably until a recent resurgence in its popularity, particularly in the context of the "rave" culture.
Timothy Leary
Harvard psychologist, began to expound on what he found to be its mind-altering advantages.
* Harvard psychologist
* Experimented with hallucinogenic substances on human subjects (LSD)
* Thought it was a portal into the unconscious psyche
* Unscientific a
Give a brief history of heroin use in the US from the 1800s until now.
* First synthesized in the late 1890s and it has been available for use since the early 1900s.
* Extent has been greater among lower and higher SES
* During the Vietnam War, high incidence of heroin use among US soldiers in Vietnam was a concern, but sold
Bath Salts
a psychoactive "designer drug" that is synthesized from various amphetamine-like chemicals and can be inhaled, swallowed, smoked, or injected.
Synthetic Marijuana
a psychoactive "designer drug" comprised of natural plants that are sprayed with synthetic chemicals that mimic the effects of cannabis when consumed.
How are medical science and drug use related?
* Many of the drugs described were used for medicinal purposed at one time or another.
* Medical science only gradually became the well-respected institution we know today -- even in the 20th century, folk cures, potions, and so-called patent medicines we
What is the main way that society established formal guidelines for drug use?
Legislation.
* Legislation is the main way society establishes formal guidelines for drug use -- such legislation reflects a society's beliefs about drugs.
* Laws typically establish restrictions or prohibit the manufacture, importation, sale, or possessi
Is drug use a crime?
NO.
actual drug use in the United States, and in other countries as well, is not a crime under federal law, nor is it a crime to be a drug addict or alcoholic.
True/False
The more restrictive the laws the more effective they are.
FALSE
* Drug laws have limited effectiveness in reducing overall illicit drug availability and use.
* More restrictive the laws, less effective they are.
What was the last industrialized nation to formally implement drug legislation?
The United States.
The San Francisco Ordinance (1875)
opium dens were banned (but NOT the smoking of opium); conviction for operating or frequenting an opium den carried a fine of $50 to $500 and/or jail sentence of 10 days to 6 months; impact was not great - the larger and more obvious opium dens closed but
What led to The San Francisco Ordinance of 1875?
* The only notable law regarding drug use in the 19th century -- racial control
* Many Chinese laborers entered country in mid-1800s to meet demand of expanding west - when construction was over they went back to San Francisco and frequented opium-dens (p
When did Congress pass a law banning the importation of opium for smoking?
1909.
Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)
* designed to control opiate addiction, legislated that producers of medicines must indicate on the packaging the amount of drug contained in their products; focused on opium, morphine, and heroin, but also mandated the accurate labeling of products that
Harrison Narcotics Tax Act (1914)
* strictly regulated, but did not prohibit, the legal supply of certain drugs, particularly the opiates; the law stated marketing and prescribing narcotics only "in the course of his professional practice"; although the confusion of this act's intent led
What prompted Congress to pass the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act?
This law was passed not in response to domestic demand but rather as a consequence of the United States signing the Hague Convention of 1912, an international agreement that directed signing nations to regulate opium traffic within their respective countr
What was the negative and unintended consequence of the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act?
Brecher argued that the law served to shift opium and morphine addicts to heroin (which became easier to obtain on the black market) and overall to double the number of addicts in the United States.
Alcohol Prohibition (1920)
prohibited the production, sale, transportation, and importing of alcohol in any part of the US; only exception was that alcoholic beverages kept in the home, such as naturally fermented hard cider, could be consumed but not offered for sale.
* Eighteenth
National Prohibition Act
subsequently passed after eighteenth -- provided mean to investigate and punish violators of the Eighteenth Amendment -- defined an "intoxicating beverage" as one containing more than 0.5% alcohol.
Did the 18th amendment succeed?
* Overturned 13 years later by the Twenty-first Amendment -- overall failed.
* Did succeed in some ways:
* Rate of drinking was reduced
* Decreased death rates attributable to liver cirrhosis
* Decreased admission rates to state hospitals for treatment of
What was an unintended consequence of Prohibition?
* Variety of undesired consequences were associated with binge drinking:
* Problems (increasing) --
* Organized crime and smuggling
* Disrespect for the law
* Speakeasy: a slang expressions used to describe a saloon operating without license; popularly us
Federal Bureau of Narcotics
Now the DEA
legislative action in 1930 provided independent status for narcotic control agents through FBN.
Marijuana Tax Act of 1937
* this measure did not ban marijuana but instead required authorized producers, manufacturers, importers, and dispensers of the drug to register and pay an annual license fee -- only nonmedical possession or sale of marijuana was outlawed.
* Legislative a
What are two noteworthy trends in post-prohibition legislation?
* Increased attention to nonnarcotic drug use, whereby stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogenic substances became regulated under legislation such as the Drug Abuse Control Amendment of 1965.
* Change in federal legislation was a shifting of at least s
Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act (1970)
the basis for drug regulation in the United States today; also called the Controlled Substances Act.
* Drug classification for law enforcement purposes are rooted in the 1970 Controlled Substances Act
* Classified by their medical use, their potential for
Can the states change their individual drug laws?
YES.
Each state has the opportunity to modify current drug laws according to its own needs and preferences.
What type of drug were law enforcement agencies having difficulties controlling in the 1980s?
Designer Drugs.
Designer drugs (drugs that were structurally similar but not identical to illegal substances), each time slight modifications were made, enforcement officials were forced to go through the time-consuming process of documenting the drug and
Controlled Substances Analogue Enforcement Act
In response to the difficulty controlling designer drugs, (1986) Congress passed the Controlled Substances Analogue Enforcement Act, which allowed for the immediate classification of a substance as a controlled substance -- that way officials were in a be
Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act of 1988
this legislation controls the distribution of particular chemicals, tabulating machines and encapsulating machines that are used in the manufacture of illicit drugs.
What type of drugs were added to the schedules in 1999?
Date rape drugs.
What drug did the vikings use?
Mushrooms.
Where the phrase "going Berserk" came from -- the vikings were called Berserks
Who favors no restrictions on drugs?
Psychologist Andrew Well.
What is the patchwork quilt of drug regulations based on?
* Based on the intermingling of
* Fact
* Health
* Morality
* Personal Choice
* Social Order
Mandrake (sorcerer's root)
* Gave bad nickname to scare people away from trying these drugs
* "Sorcerer" bad because of witch craze/hunt
Henbane (devil's eye/stinking nightshade)
* Gave bad nickname to scare people away from trying these drugs
* "Devil" bad because of Christian world don't want association with the devil.
Were there restrictions on alcohol in London in the Middle Ages?
* Not alcohol in totality, just some alcohol was restricted/bad
* WHY? All goes back to societal control
* Beer -- OK ... Gin -- BAD
* Hogarth's prints depicted conditions that led to the Gin Act of 1751
* Illegal to distill gin in England (unless you had
Why was beer okay in Middle Ages London?
* It was more sanitary than water
* London had an aboveground waste system -- cholera was present
* In many cases beer replaced drinking water (very accepted)
* Bury St. Edmunds
* Gave to local peasants and surfs
* Peasants would, in return, provide prote
Why did Britain want to continue opium trade with China?
* Britain was like nah we won't stop trade because it was incredibly profitable but more notably CULTURAL DIFFERENCES:
* It wasn't smoked so people really would not get addicted
* So they didn't understand the whole "opiate addiction" thing
Treaty of Nanking (1842)
* The Treaty of Nanking 1842 (ended the wars)
* Gave British the rights to the Hong Kong port until 1997
* China had to reimburse the people that lost money on those destroyed shipments
Did the Treaty of Nanking last?
* Good for 4 years until the Second Opium War
* Ended quickly (Brits won)
* Acquiesced to China because they did not want to keep having these wars
* Huge tax on opium until 20th century
* Implications:
* China was ahead of its time -- noticed in its own
What the major invention for drug delivery in the 1850s?
The development of the hypodermic syringe.
* Morphine got its first heavy use during the Civil War via the hypodermic syringe (reserved only for officers of higher rank)
* What determined you reputation as a doctor during the Civil War was not how GOOD yo
Paragoric
* A mixture of opium and alcohol, was distributed like spices were. Doses for infants, children, and adults are given on the bottle. At 46% alcohol, this product is 92 proof.
* Called it GOM (God's Own Medicine) used to treat pretty much everything.
Were the 1800s a drug users paradise?
By 1900, estimates that a quarter of a million people were addicted, most to patent medicines
Grossly underestimated number
What populations were most vulnerable/addicted by the year 1900?
Women aged 25-40 (child bearing age because physicians of the time did not understand women's health) and children (baby is crying? oh give them some laudanum drops to quiet them down).
Describe the Whiskey Rebellion and its importance/implications.
* Huge national debt, Alexander Hamilton imposed whiskey tax to help alleviate it
* Caused uproar - Whiskey Rebellion (1794) - John Nebble was shot in the back for it (out on frontier)
* George Washington led troops out into battle the citizens (first & l
Sherley Amendment (1912)
After manufacturers found a loop hole in the Pure Food and Drug Act (labeling vs claims) this amendment was passed.
* Changed wording to FRAUDULENT claims
* So now who has the burden of proof?
* Put FDA under burden to prove every test on every product (n
What was come reasons for the push of Prohibition?
* Water purification (especially in cities) became better and water was safe to drink
* No longer reliant on alcohol so [some] people wanted prohibition.
Also -- morality, big business, the war
Who was the president at the time of prohibition and did he support the amendment?
President Wilson.
He actually vetoed it, but Congress overrode him.
What was a loophole in the Prohibition amendement?
Jamaican Ginger Extract
* Story of the Jake Leg (1930)
* No alcohol (prohibition) so people would use patent medicines to get the little bit of alcohol in the medicines
* People taking it would get wobbly, eventually they wouldn't even be able to walk
* D
What were some benefits of Prohibition?
* Per capital alcohol use
* Alcohol-related liver cirrhosis
* Alcohol use disorders
* Accidents due to alcohol
* Arrests for alcohol related crimes
* Hospital admittances for alcohol related ailments
Hayes Commission 1922
* Hollywood
* Hayes Commission 1922 -- no lawbreaking, violence, sex, or alcohol consumption on the screen
* Forerunner to Production Code of 1934
What was the precursor to the Controlled Substance Act?
1965: Drug Abuse Control Amendment
* Remained law until 1970, when declared unconstitutional
* The reversal is because we get the controlled substance act instead
Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act (2009)
* Allow FDA regulation:
*Manufacture/marketing/sale of tobacco products
* Does not allow outright ban on tobacco products, but a number of actions were mandated
* Focus???
* For the youth of the US
* Got rid of candy cigarettes, stronger warnings on smoke
UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs in 1961
* First international effort towards controlling drug use and abuse
* 12 European countries pledged to fight drug abuse/trafficking via legislation
* Realized it was not working
* Amended 1972 to encourage efforts to prevent substance abuse and provide tr
1990 Frankfurt Resolution
* Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Zurich
* Attempts to eliminate drugs and drug use cannot succeed
* Encouraged legislation to decriminalize purchase/possession/consumption of cannabis
* Many jurisdictions began focusing on reducing negative effects
* 'Har