language
a system of communication using symbolic sounds, gestures, or marks that are pit together according to certain rules, resulting in meanings that are intelligible to all who share that language
-we are genetically "programmed" to have language
-contains sy
signals
instinctive sounds or gestures that have a natural or self-evident meaning
-used throughout the animal kingdom
lingustics
the modern scientific study of all aspects of language
-began in India about 2kya
-attempt to understand origins of language and development over time
phonetics
the systematic identification and description of distinctive speech sounds in a language
-basically just the different sounds found in a language
-sounds in some language don't always exist in other languages
phonology
the study of language sounds
phonemes
the smallest unit of sound that make a difference in meaning in a language
-example: "Field" and "Yield" // "ee": "swEEt" and "hEAt"
-approx. 44 in English language
morphology
the study of the patterns or rules of word formulation in a language, including the guidelines for verb tense, pluralization, and compound words
-done by marking sounds that may change meaning
morphemes
the smallest unit of sound that carry a MEANING in language; distinct from phonemes, which can alter meaning but have no meaning by themselves
-example: "cow" vs "cows
syntax
the patterns or rules by which words are arranged into phrases and sentences
-makes up grammar
grammar
the ENTIRE formal structure of a language, including morphology and syntax
-found in human language
-lots and lots of rules
language family
a group of languages defended from a single ancestral language
-bunch of related languages
-example: Indo-European language family
linguistic divergence
the development of different languages from a single ancestral language
-the process of language splitting and becoming a new language
-can result because of changing society (ex: introduction of internet changed/added meanings to some words)
-large group
linguistic nationalism
the attempt by ethnic groups and even countries to proclaim independence by purging their language of foreign terms
-example: USA spelling words w/o "ou" as it is in Europe (color vs colour)
When Bambi Spoke Arapaho: Preserving Indigenous Languages
-N. Greymorning realized Arapaho (his native/ancestral language) was slowly dying
-studied linguistics & realized how language influences how people see the world
-attempted to keep language alive by incorporating words/phrases into school curriculum
-tra
sociolinguistics
the study of the relationship between language and society through examining how social categories (age, gender, ethnicity, religion, occupation, class) influence the use and significance of distinctive styles of speech
gendered speech
distinct male and female speech patterns that vary across social and cultural settings
-one study examined why North American women had less decisive speech patterns than men (attempt to explain relationship between gender and power)
dialects
the varying forms of a language that reflect particular regions, occupations, or social classes and that are similar enough to be mutually intelligible
-can be regional or social (based on social rank/political status/etc)
code switching
the practice of changing from one mode of speech to another as the situation demands, whether from one language to another or from one dialect of a language to another
ethnolinguistics
a branch of linguistics that studies the relationships between language and culture and how they mutually influence and inform each other
linguistic relativity
the idea that language to some extent shapes the way in which people perceive and think about the world
-example: Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
passive bilingualism
the ability to comprehend two languages but express oneself in only one
gestures
facial expression and bodily postures and motions that convey intended as well as subconscious messages
-gestural messages often complement verbal messages
-certain gestures are found in many cultures and have the same universal meaning
The gesture-call system
-includes gestures and paralanguage
-gives general idea of what the speaker is trying to say
-language does not always completely give message in totality
kinesics
the study of nonverbal signals in body language including facial expressions and bodily postures and motions
proxemics
the cross cultural study of people's perception and use of social space
-how people position themselves around others
-establishing personal space
paralanguage
voice effects that accompany language and convey meaning; these include vocalizations such as giggling, groaning, or sighing, as well as voice qualities such as pitch and tempo
-"its not what was said, it was how it was said"
-example: whispering vs shout
tonal languages
languages in which the sound pitch of a spoken word is an essential part of its pronunciation and meaning
-english is non tonal but tone can still change meaning to a statement/question
-Mandarin: change in tone of "ma" can mean mother AND horse (complete
whistled speech
an exchange of whistled words using a phonetic emulation of the sounds produced in spoken voice
The Biology of Human Speech
-position of the larynx and epiglottis is important in human speech
-those two are the main reason humans are able to use language
-larynx and epiglottis shift down as human grows
displacement
a term referring to things and events removed in time and space
-apes are capable
writing system
a set of visible or tactile signs used to represent units of language in a systematic way
-early writing system = Egyptian hieroglyphics (~5kya) and cuneiform (mesopotamia)
alphabet
a series of symbols representing the sounds of a language arranged in a traditional order
-first seen in cuneiform
-used in writing systems