Broad Spectrum Revolution
period beginning around 15k BP in the Middle East and 12k BP in Europe during which a wider range of plant and animal life was hunted, gathered, collected, caught, and fished. In Middle East is led to food production
-shift from focus on megafana and larg
hilly flanks
subtropical woodland zone that flanks those rivers to the north
maize
-corn
-first domesticated in tropical lowlands of southwestern Mexico
-major source of calories in Mesoamerica and Central America
--molecular and genetic studies indicate that maize domestication actually took place in the lowlands of SW mexico
-wild anc
manoic
-cassava
-domesticated in South American lowlands where other root crops such as yam and sweet potatoes also were important
Mesoamerica
-Middle America - mexico, belize, guatamala
-shift from teosinte to maize required more genetic changes so the domestication process took longer
-lack of domesticable animals retarded the ermgence of food production, sedentism, and a full-fledged Neolithi
Mesolithic
-After the Upper Paleolithic
-characteristic tool type = microlith ("small stone")
*used as fish hooks and harpoons
-abundant inventory of small and delicately shaped stone tools
-knowledge of European Mesolithic era more extensive because of the archaeol
Natufians
-adopted sedentism lifestyle that Lewis Winford described
* broad-spectrum foraging
-collected wild cereals and hunted gazelles in year-round villages
-able to stay in the same place because they could harvest nearby wild cereals for six months
-climate b
sedentism
sedentary life in villages
teosinte
-teocentli
-native to Rio Balsas watershed of tropical SW Mexico
-wild ancestor of maize
-mutations started before people started growing maize
-well adapted to natural niche, mutations offered no advantage and didn't spread
-eventually became dependent o
Nittano site
-Japan
-located in inlet near Tokyo
-occupied several times by people of Jomon culture
*made stone and bone tools
*some of the world's earliest pottery
-sites have yielded remains of more than 300 species of shellfish and 180 species of edible plants
Neolithic Revolution
-sometimes called the Agricultural revolution
-widespread transition beginning 12 k year sago go human societies form lifestyles based on foraging to lifestyles based on food production (farming and herding)
-transform small, mobile groups into societies
Jianxi Province pottery
-southern China
-oldest known ceramic pottery
-2k-3k year solder than other examples found in East Asia
-simples vessels used for cooking food
-Chinese kitchen based on cooking and steaming -- which ceramic facilitate
-made by a group of mobile hunter-gat
Middle East Neolithic
-diet based on barbecued meats and pita bread that did not need pottery
*grind seeds, mix with water, then cook dough on the fire
-people started managing and modifying the characteristics of familiar plants and animals
- committed farmers and herders
-Ke
Genetic changes and domestication *
-seeds of domesticated cereals are larger - crops produce a higher yield per unit of area
*lose their natural seeds dispersal mechanisms
~tougher connective tissues holding the seedpods to the stem
-grains of wheat, barley, and other cereals occur in bunc
state
social and political unit featuring a central gov't, extreme contrasts of wealth, and social classes
Old World Farmers
-Egypt - agricultural economy based on Middle Eastern domesticates led to pharaonic civilization
*southern Egypt excavations uncovered early pottery and cattle
*Nabta Playa (southern Egypt) is a basin that filled with water during prehistoric summers -- a
first american farmers
-settlements of the Americans was one of the major achievements of anatomically modern humans
-colonization continued the trends toward population increase and expansion of geographic range
-Native American occupied a variety of environments
-most signifi
12 caloric staples
wheat, corn (maize), rice, barley, sorghum, soybeans, potatoes, cassava, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, sugar beets, and bananas
Eurasia
-Jared Diamond observes the geography of the old World facilitated the diffusion of plants, animals, and tech and information
-most crops domesticated just once and spread rapidly in an east-west direction
-much broader east-west expanse than Africa and a
Advantages of Neolithic communities
-discoveries and inventions
-learned to spin and weave; make pottery, bricks, arched masonry; smelt and cast metals
-developed open trade and commerce by land and sea
-food production
Disadvantages of Neolithic communities
-food producers typically work many more hours than foragers for a less adequate diet
-fields and irrigation systems need care
-livestock require pens and corrals
-trade makes men leave home and leave burdens for those who stay behind
-tend to have more c
Aztec
-Tenochtitlan capital
-fueling population growth was intensification of agriculture, particularly in southern part of the valley
-capital on an island in the lake
-production of luxury goods was more prestigious and more highly organized
-luxury producers
Metallurgy
-knowledge of properties of metals, including their extraction and processing and the manufacture of metal tools
-annealing copper
*copper, once heated (annealed) in a fire becomes malleable again and won't be brittle and crack when hammered
-evolved rapi
stratification
sharp social divisions-strata- based on unequal access to wealth and power
bronze
-alloys of arsenic and copper or tin and copper
-Bronze Age
-flows more easily than copper when heated at the same temperatures, made it more convenient for metal casting
primary states
- states that arose on their own and not through contact with other state societies
-archaic staes or first-generation states
-emerged from competition among chiefdoms
-at least 6: Egypt, Meso, Indus River Valley, northern China, Mesoamerica, Andes
-emerg
Teotihuacan
-in the Valley of Mexico
*large basin surrounded by mountains
*rich volcanic soil, rainfall not always reliable
-northern part of valley - colder and drier
-growth reflect agricultural potential
-perpetual springs permitted irrigation of a large alluvial
chiefdoms
-relations among villages as well as individuals were unequal
-smaller villages had lost their autonomy and were under the authority of leaders who lived in larger villages
-Kent Flannery: only those ranked societies with such loss of village autonomy sho
ranked societies
-hereditary inequality
-individuals tend to be ranked in terms of their genealogical distance from the chief
Zapotec
-emerged in the Oaxaca Valley
-first Mesoamerican state
-developed a distinctive art style
-perfected their capital city Monte Alban -1.2k years served as capital
-lasted until it was conquered by Spain
-Valley of Oaxaca
*armed conflict began as raiding,
egalitarian society
-most typically found amongst foragers
-lacks status distinction except for those based on age, gender, and individual qualities, talents, and achievements
-status distinctions not inherited
settlement hierarchy
-ranked series of communities that differ in size, function, and building types
Halafian
-early and widespread pottery style
-first found in Tell Halaf in northern Syria
-refers to delicate ceramic style
-describes the period during which the elite level and the first chiefdoms emerged
- low number of them suggest they were luxury goods assoc
smelting
-hight temp process by which pure metal is produced from an ore
-ores have a much wider distribution
-when and how it was discovered, unknown
Mesopotamia
-area between Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
-growing population supported itself through irrigation and intensive river valley agriculture
-earliest cities were Sumer (capital: Warka) and Elam (capital: Susa)
-well-defined class structure, with complex stra
polities
new political entity developed to manage Neolithic economies
hydraulic systems
-need to regulate water based agricultural economy
-key role of state official was to manage the systems of irrigation, drainage, and flood control
-spurs state formation bc it can feed more ppl which fuels population growth and promotes expansion of the
factors that contribute to state formation
hydraulic systems, regional trade, population war and circumscription
regional trade
-states may arise to control and regulate key nodes in regional trade networks
-Charles Stanish and Abigail Levine
population, war, and circumscription
-Robert Cerneiro
-physical circumscribed environments include small islands, river plains, oases, and valleys with streams
-social circumscription exists when neighboring societies block expansion, emigration, or access to resources
-first states develope
V. gordon Childe
-coined the phrase "Neolithic Revolution" to describe the origin and impact of food production
*chose revolution deliberately bc he wanted to compare the major social transformation of prehistory to the Industrial Rev
-"Urban Rev" to describe major transf
Childe's 10 key attributes of early cities and states
1. first citifies were larger and more densely populated than previous settlements
2. within the city were full-time specialist craftsmen, transport workers, merchants, officials, and priests
3. each primary producer ( e.g. farmer) had to pay a tithe or t
vertical economy
-four geographically close, but very different environmental zones
1. high plateau
2. hilly flanks - place where food production originated
3. peidmont steppe
4. alluvial plane
surplus production challenges
-greater organization of harvest
-greater limitation of access
-increased routinization of distribution
-new limits on consumption
expansion and domestication
-domestication was the gradual result of attempts to recreate Hilly Flanks economy in new climates
domestication
-involved the alteration of both plants and aniamals
-far more specialized and focused on much smaller number of food sources
attributes of early cities/states (class notes)
-larger and more densely populated than previous settlements
-productive farming economies, supporting dense populations, often including cities
-taxation
-social stratification
-monumental architecture
-had some form of record keeping usually writing scr
economy
-system of production, distribution, and consumption of resources
economic anthropology
-study of economics in comparative perspective
adaptive strategies
-foraging
*10k years ago everyone was a forager
-horticulture
-agriculture
-pastoralism
-industrialism
cuneiform
-Latin for "wedge"
-writing system
-scribes used a stylus to scrawl symbols on raw clay
-Sumerian and Akkadian languages written in cuneiform
-first writing developed to hand record keeping for a centralized economy
Indus River Valley
-Harappan state
-major cities at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro
-trade and spread of whirring from Mesopotamia may have played a role in the emergence of the Harrapan state
*located in Pakistan's Punjab Province
-urban planning, social stratification, early wri
Shang Dynasty
- first Chinese state
-arose in the Huang He (Yellow) River area of north china
-urbanism, palatial architecture, human sacrifice, and sharp division between social classes
-burials of the aristocracy were marked by ornaments of stone (jade)
-bronze metal
agriculture
-intensive, continous cultivation
-use of domesticated animals, irrigation, or terracing
-use animals as means of production
*attach animals to plows and harrows for field preparation before planting or transplanting
*typically collect manure from their a
balanced reciprocity
-applies to exchanges between people who are more distantly related than are members of the sam band or household
-ex. christmas gifts, bartering, cooperative work - Amish
band
-small group of fewer than hundred people, all related by kinship or marriage
-band size stayed about the same year-round or the band split up for part of the year
-band membership shifted several times in a lifetime
-exogamous -- people married outside t
food production
-human control over the reproduction of plants and animals
-contrasts with foraging economies
-systematically select and breed for desirable traits in plants and animals
-advent of food production, which includes plant cultivation and animal domestication
generalized reciprocity
-someone gives to another person and expects nothing immediate in return
-exchanges not primarily economic transactions but expressions of personal relationships
-ex. parents-child giving, foragers
-done between socially close individuals
horticulture
-nonintensive, shifting cultivation
- hand-held tools: use simple tools such as hoes and digging sticks to grow their crops
-preserve their ecosystem by allowing their fields to lie fallow for varying lengths of time
-slash and burn techniques (swidden) -
market principle
-governs distribution of means of production - and, labor, natural resources, tech, knowledge, and capital
means of production
-land (territory), labor, and technology
- land
*foragers - person acquired the rights to use a band's territory by being born in the band or by doing it through a tie of kinship, marriage, or fictive kinship
*food producers -- rights to the mans of produ
mode of production
-way of organizing production - "a set of social relations through which labor is deployed to wrest energy from nature by means of tools, skills, organization, and knowledge" - Eric Wolf
- different modes are structured in ways that alter the character of
negative reciprocity
-dealing with people beyond their social systems
-people seek to get something back immediately
-"silent trade" reduces tension
-ex. cattle raiders
*go to neighboring group and steal cattle knowing they will probably now come back and raid you - do unto o
pastoral nomadism
-the entire group - men, women, children, moves with the animals throughout the year
-trade for corps and other products with sedentary people
pastoralists
-herders whose activities focus on domesticated animals
-East African pastoralists live in symbiosis (obligatory interaction btwn groups that is beneficial to each other) with their herds
-herders attempt to protect their animals and to ensure reproductio
peasants
-small-scale agriculturalists who live in nonindustrial sates and have rent fund obligations
-produce to ffed themselves, to sell their produce, and pay rent
-two things in common: live in state-organized societies, produce food w/o elaborate tech or mode
potlatch
-festive event within regional exchange system among tribes of North Pacific Coast of North America - Salish and Kwakiutl of Washington and British Columbia
-sponsors give away food, blankets, pieces of copper, etc in return for prestige
-enhances reputat
reciprocity
-exchange between social equals who normally are related by kinship, marriage, or another close personal tie
-occurs between social equals
-three degrees: generalized, balances, and negative
-Marshall Sahlins
-ex. dating, courtship marriage
*can i trust y
reciprocity continuum
-range from generalized to negative reciprocity
redistribution
-operates when goods, services, or their equivalent move from the local (people) level to a center
-the center may be a capital, a regional collection point, or a storehouse near a chief's residence
-taxation, pooling, tribute
-eventually flows in reverse
transhumance
-part of the group moves with the herds but most ppl stay in home villages
-maintain year-round villages and grow their own crops
yehudi cohen
-used the term adaptive strategy to describe a society's main system of economic production
-most important reason for similarities between two unrelated societies is their possessions of a similar adaptive strategy -- similar economic causes have similar
correlations
-Yehudi Cohen
-associations or covariation between two or more variables
-correlated variables are factors that are linked and interrelated, such as food intake and body weight, such that when one increases or decreases, the other changes as well
-rarely
cultivation continuum
- intermediate economies
-horticulture systems at one end ("low-labor, shifting-plot") and agriculture ("labor intensive, permanent plot") at the other end
intensive agriculture
-significant environmental effects
-irrigation ditches and paddies become repositories for organic wastes, chemicals, and disease microorganisms
-spreads at expense of trees and forests
-loss of environmental diversity - plots concentrate on just a few st
clan
-stipulated descent
-members merely say they descend from the apical (person who stands at the apex, top) ancestor
-composed of lineages
descent group
-permanent social unit whose members claim common ancestors
-groups endures though its membership changes
-determined at birth and is life-ling
-ascribed status
-frequently exogamous (members seek their mates form other descent groups)
-two common rules a
endogamy
-dictate mating or marriage within a group to which one belongs
-rules are less common
-most cultures are endogamous units
-caste system is extreme example
*belief that intercaste sexual unions lead to ritual impurity for the higher-caste partner
*inside
exogamy
-seeking a mate outside one' own group - links ppl into a wider social network that nurtures, helps, and protects them in times of need
extended family household
-expanded family households (those that include nonnuclear relatives) is greater in the poorer North American class
-expanded family household includes three or more generations
-relatives band together to pool resources
family
-group of people who are considered to be related in some way by "blood" or marriage
-some families, such as nuclear families, are residentially based (its members live together)
-difficult to define in a way that applies to all cultures
-kin group consis
family of orientation
-family in which one is born and grows up
-critical relationships are with parents and siblings
family of procreation
-formed when one marries and has children
-critical relationships with spouse and children
incest
-sexual contact with relatives
-cultures define their kin and incest differently
-socially constructed
-incest occurs among the Yanomami
*don't consider cross-cousin marriage to be incestuous which other people do
-Ashanti - "In the old days it (incest) w
levirate
-when a husband dies, the widow marries his brother
-continuing marriage that maintains the alliance between descent groups
lineage
-demonstrated descent
-members recite the names of their forebears form the apical ancestor through the present
lobola
-substantial gift given before, at, or after the marriage by the husband and his kin to the wife and her kin
-BoThanga of Mozambique call the gift a lobola
-widespread in patrilineal societies
-gift compensates the bride's group for the loss of her compan
matrilineal descent
-people join the mother's group automatically at birth and stay members throughout life
-group includes only the children of the group's women
neolocality
-marries couples are expected to establish a new place of residence - "a home of their own"
-among middle-class North Americans this is both culturally preferred and a statistical norm
patrilineal descent
-people automatically have lifetime membership to father's group
-children of the group's men join the group
patrilocality
-rule that when a couple marries, it moves to the husband's community so that their children will grow up in their father's village
plural marriage
-when a man weds two (or more) women
-woman weds a group of brothers (fraternal polyandry
polygamy
-plural marriages
polyandry
-rare
-woman has more than one husband
-almost exclusively practiced in South Asia
-ensures at least one man at home to accomplish male activities
-fraternal polyandry
*woman marries a set of brothers
*effective strategy when resources are scarce
*expande
polygyny
-more common
-one man, multiple wives
-even when encouraged, most people tend to be monogamous
*roughly equal sex ratios
-reasons:
*men marrying later than women, inheritance or widow from a brother, an increase prestige or household productivity, inferti
sororate
-when the wife dies, the husband can take her sister or another female in the group as a substitute
-no need to return lobelia and the alliance between descent groups continues
-exists in matrilineal and patrilineal societies
unilineal descent
-descent rule uses only one line
-two forms: matrilineal and patrilineal
-patrilineal more common
taxonomy
-assignment of organisms to categories according to their relatedness and resemblance
homology
-similarities used to assigns organisms to the same taxon
-similarities jointly inherited from a common ancestor
-about relatedness
analogy
-similar traits can arise if species experience similar selective forces and adapt to them in similar ways
-similar response to similar environmental pressures
-ex. dolphins and fish share many traits but dolphin is a mammal, not a fish
convergent evolutions
-process by which analogies are produced
-when very different species arrive at a similar solution to help them survive, an example would be flying fish, bats, birds and butterflies all fly
primate tendencies
-Anthropoid tendencies
1. Grasping
*5 digited hands and feet suited for grasping
*opposable thumbs - thumbs that can touch other fingers
*primates good at grasping with feet and over time as people began to be bipedal the grabbing with feet ability lessen
new world v. old world monkeys
-New World - Platyrrhines
*all aboral
*only live in South and Central America
*limbs about the same size
*only ones with prehensile tail - can grip with it
*flat nose
-Old World - Catarrhines
*many aboral
*only live in Africa and South Asia
*more terrestr
ape species
-Hominoids
-gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimps
-larger bodies
-longer lifespans
-larger birth intervals and period of infant dependency
-tendency towards orthograde posture -- knuckle walking, not fully upright
-larger brains
-shorter faces
-no tails
sexual dimorphism
-Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species. For example, humans are slightly dimorphic for body size, with males being taller, on average, than females of the same population.
Hominid v. Hominin
-hominid - member of the zoological family that includes fossils and living humans, chimps, gorillas, and common ancestors -hominin - human line excluding apes and chimps
earliest potential hominins
-Ardipithecus
hogopan
before everything
bipedalism and possible causes
-permitted the use of tolls and weapons against predators and competitors
Lucy" and "Ardi
-Lucy
-Ardi
*Ardipithecus remidus fairly complete skeleton heralded in 2009 as earliest known hominin skeleton
*Ethopian
*female - small and lightly built skull, small canine teeth
*4 ft, 120 lbs - foot taller and 2x larger than Lucy found in the same reg
The Rift Valley
Humanity began here 200,000 years ago.
Genus Australopithecus and its members
-7 species
-skill grew after both to accommodate growing brain
-cranial structure --> lines where bones of skull eventually come together - fused earlier in life
1. Anamensis
*bipedal hominin N. Kenya
*78 fragments from 2 sites - Kanapoi and Allia Bay --
foraging
1. depends on naturally available food
2. Small populations - typically less then 100 people
3. Mobile - follow food
4. relatively egalitarian - age and gender matter
ex. San of Southern Africa, Australian Aborigines
-modern foragers influenced by nationa
oldowan tools
-oldest tools - 1.8 million years old
-Ethiopia, Congo, Malawi
-stone tools of flakes and cores
*cores --> piece of rock, size of tennis ball, which flakes are struck
~once flakes removed, core become tool itself
-chopper --> tool made by flaking the ebde
genus Homo and its members
-Homo Habilis
*2.4-1.7 may
*coexisted with A. Boisei for about a million years
*long arms, small body
*oldowan tools
*large brow ridge - hard work done by front teeth
-Homo Erectus
*lived from 1.9 may - 300k BP
*small period of time - brain rapidly increa
anatomically modern humans
-also known as Homo sapiens sapiens, humans that are as modern as we are today.
denisovans
-Southern Siberia
-Split from ancestral neanderthals around 400k years ago
-wisdom tooth and finger fragments found
*tooth unlike either neanderthals or AMH teeth
diet, location, and social arrangements of Orangutans, Gorillas, Chimps, and Bonobos
chimps are apes
Things we think only humans do
1. share food widely and routinely
2. coperate in planning and carrying out complex, multistage tasks
3. use spoken language
4. classify others as kin and interact with them throughout life
similarities between humans and other primates
1. learning
2. tool use
3. hunting
4. symbolic communication
behavioral modernity
-relying on symbolic through, elaborating cultural creativity, with the result of booming fully human in behavior as well as anatomy
hominin tool traditions (Acheulian, Mousterian, Upper Paleo)
-Lower Paleo End --> Acheulian, H. Erectus
-Upper Paleo End --> Blade Tools, Homo Sapien Sapiens
-Mid Paleo --> Mousteria, Archaic, Homor Sapiens, Neandertals
immature birth, bipedalism, brain size
- immature birth --> skull not fully formed when bored, fusing together, and grows later outside of the womb
*extended period of indent dependency
-growing brains accompanied by anatomical changes
*wider birth canal
~only get so wide without compromising
punctuated equilibrium
the hypothesis that evolutionary development is marked by isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little or no change.
neandertal DNA
-when compared with humans, it is different in 27 locations
*same sections of modern human DNA gathered from a round the world, 5-8 differences
-neanderthal ancestors split from archaic humans about 600k years ago - last common ancestor
*out-competed with
Industrialism
-based on machines and chemical processes (field), which make possible the development of manufacturing, mass production, and mechanization
-produces large, mobile, skilled, specialized, and educated labor forces
-labor forces are controlled by states and
production theory
-Karl Marx
-focused on importance of human labor for transforming raw materials into desired products
-labor links humans to the material world around us and is a fundamentally social activity
-different modes of production (means + relations of productio
economics
-developed as part of industrial society, as a way of understanding how goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed in the modern, cash based market economies
-infinite wants, scarce means, profit maximization, and rationality
three principles of exchange
market, redistibution, reciprocity
markets
-all purpose money (as a "relation" substitute)
-suppl and demand
-fluidity, diverstiy, and diversity of exchange
bilateral descent
-Americans
-links a person to kind through both males and female simultaneously
Neoclassical economics
- "free market"= "free" bc no traditional restrictions determining distribution (not lined to social status)
-the market (via supply and demand) determines levels of production and consumption
-capitalism = only form of economic rationality
-by extension,
ambilineal descent
-ramages
-based on bilateral descent
-resemble lineage in size and function but provide more recruiting flexibility
-individual can choose membership from among several ramages where he or she has relatives
collateral Kin
Kin descended from a common ancestor but not in a direct ascendant or descendant line, such as siblings and cousins
Virilocality/ uxorilocality
- virilocality --> married couple resides with or near husband's family
-uxorilocality -->married couples reside with or near the wife's family
bilateral kinship calculation
-people tend to perceive kin links through males and females as being similar or equal
nuclear family
-parents and their children
Iroquois Kinship Terms
Iroquois kinship terminology operates in unilineal systems. One result is that there are different terms for relatives on the mother's and father's sides and distinctions between cross and parallel cousins. Another feature is the "merging" of one's mother
Nayar Descent
-alternative nuclear family
-large and powerful caste of the Malabar Coast of Southern India
-traditional kinship system was matrilineal
-lived in matrilineal extended family compounds called tarawads
*residential complex with several buildings, its own t
kinship systems
-American culture promote the idea that kinship should be biological
lineal kinship
a lineal kin is anyone on the direct line of descent to and from you (ego)
exchange
-economist Karl Polanyi three principles of exchange:
*reciprocity
*redistribution
*markets
-not always about the money
-they're not all mutually exclusive - all operate within our society
functional explanation for marriage
-socially approved union of two people
-most Americans, marriage based on: love, sex, choice (must be a fundamentally personal one)
-most Americans - marriage should not be explicitly economic decision, a decision made by parents, a devision made against
general kinship
-complex system of cultural y defined social relationships based on marriage (principle of affinity) and birth (principle of consanguinity)
bridewealth/dowry
-occurs when the bride's family or kin group provides substantial gifts when their daughter marries
-Greece - form of a dowry in which the bride gets a wealth transfer for her mother, to serve as a kind of trust fund during her marriage
-usually: dowry go
incest taboo/theories about incest taboo
-a legal rule that prohibits sexual intercourse or marriage between particular classes of kin
-incest taboo is a human universal
-way we define who is kin and relative varies, then what counts as incest will vary
-what counts as incest is socially specifi
same-sex marriage and lineage
-when same-sex marriage is legal, the social construction of kinship easily can make both partners parents
*Sudan Nuer society - a woman could marry a woman if her father had only daughters but no male heirs (strictly patrilineal society- need male heirs
kula ring
-way of maintaining connection
-Mwali armband - male
-Trobriand Islands
-same things passed around the islands in a ring for 2-10 yrs to make full cycle
-once in the kula, always in the kula
-exchange accompanied by ceremony, magic
-reinforces status and
matrilocality
-married couples live in the wife's community and their children grow up in their mother's village
-rules keeps related women together
subsistence fund
people have to work, to eat, to replace the calories they use in daily activity
replacement fund
people must maintain their technology and other items essential to production
social fund
people must help their friends, relatives, and in-laws, and neighbors
ceremonial fund
refers to expenditures on ceremonies or rituals
rent fund
refers to resources that people must render to an individual or agency that is superior politically or economically
homogamy
marrying people like yourself
sororate and levirate
-sororate -- widower marries one of his deceased wife's sisters (or another from her group if a sister is not available)
-levirate -- widow marries one of her deceased husband's brothers
serial monogamy
-people go from one long term relationship to another
monkeys
-two: prosimians and anthropoids
1. anthropoids - two infraorders: platyrrhines (New World Monkeys) and catarrhines (Old World monkeys, apes, humans)
*catarrhines - sharp nosed
*platyrrhines - flat nosed
-old world monkeys, apes, and humans are more close