Primate
Member of the mammalian order Primates, including prosmians, monkeys, apes, and humans, defined by a suite of anatomical and behavioral traits
Evolution
A change in the frequency of a gene or a trait in a population over multiple generations
Biological anthropology
The study of humans as biological organisms, considered in an evolutionary framework; sometimes called physical anthropology (origin of modern species/biological variation)
Hominin
A member of the primate family Hominidae, distinguished by bipedal posture and, in more recently evolved species, a large brain
Adaptation
A trait that increases the reproductive success of an organism, produced by natural selection in the context of a particular environment
Anthropology
The study of humankind in a cross-cultural context...includes cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, archaeology, and biological anthropology (in all times and places)
Culture
The sum total of learned traditions, values and beliefs that groups of people (and a few species of highly-intelligent animals) possess
Biocultural anthropology
The study of the interaction between biology and culture, which plays a role in most human traits
Cultural anthropology
The study of human societies in a cross-cultural context; the subdivision that includes ethnology, archaeology, and linguistics (all aspects of human behavior)
Ethnology
The study of human societies, their traditions, rituals, beliefs, and the differences between societies in these traits
Ethnography
The practice of cultural anthropology; Studying the minute to minute workings of human societies; especially non-Western
Linguistic anthropology
The comparative study of language, its origins, and use in culture; also called anthropological linguistics; acquisition in infancy and childhood
Archaeology
The study of the material culture of past peoples
Artifacts
The objects, from tools to art, left by earlier generations of people
Material culture
The objects or artifacts of past human societies
Paleoanthropology
The study of the fossil record of ancestral humans and their primate kin
Osteology
The study of the skeleton
Paleopathology
The study of diseases in ancestral human populations
Bioarchaeology
The study of human remains in an archaeological context
Forensic anthropology
The study of human remains applied to legal context
Primatology
The study of the nonhuman primates and their anatomy, genetics, behavior, and ecology
Human biology
Human growth and development, adaptation to environment extremes and human genetics
Physical anthropology
The study of humans as biological organisms, considered in an evolutionary framework
Observation
Gathering of scientific information by watching a phenomenon
Deduction
A conclusion that follows logically from a set of observations
Hypothesis
A preliminary explanation of a phenomenon; Formation is the first step of the scientific method
Experimentation
Testing a hypothesis
Data
Scientific evidence produced by an experiment or by observation, from which scientific conclusions are made
Scientific method
Standard scientific research procedure in which a hypothesis is stated, data are collected to test it, and the hypothesis is either supported or refuted
Falsifiable
Able to be shown to be false
Paradigm
A conceptual framework useful for understanding a body of evidence
Immutability
Stasis; lack of change
Polygenism
Ancient belief that all people are derived from multiple creations
Monogenism
Ancient belief that people are derived from single creation
Taxonomy
The science of biological classification
Binomial nomenclature
Linnaean naming system for all organisms, consisting of a genus and species label (ex. Homo sapien)
Taxon
A group of organisms assigned to a particular category
Catastrophism
Theory that there have been multiple creations interspersed by great natural disasters such as Noah's Ark
Theory of inheritance by acquired characteristics
Discredited theory of evolutionary change proposed that changes that occur during the lifetime of an individual, through use or disuse, can be passed on to the next generation
Carolus Linnaeus
Swedish botanist; author of Sytema Naturae; father of taxonomy
Comte de Buffon
Accepted that animals who migrate to different climates adapted, but had no mechanism to explain this; said animals in New World were weaker and smaller but was proved wrong
Georges Cuvier
Opponent of evolutionary change despite fossil discoveries; advocated catastrophism
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Created Theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics (Lamarckianism); breakthrough= seeing relationship between organisms and environments; error = thinking evolution could take place in a lifetime
Lysenkoism
Soviet-era research program that tried to apply Lamarckian thinking to agricultural production
Uniformitarianism
Theory that the same geological process we observe today was operating in the past; requires great time and depth of age to Earth
James Hutton
Studied layering of rock formations (stratigraphy); advocated uniformitarianism
Charles Lyell
Argued that slow gradual change was the way of the physical world and one would find more primitive life in older rocks; published Principles of Geology which Darwin read many times on his voyage
Charles Darwin
Ardent naturalist from an early age; spent 5 years of his life traveling around the world studying nature; discovered theory of evolution and natural selection especially from Galapagos Islands and studying finches
Biogeography
The distribution of animals and plants on the earth
Adaptive radiation
Diversification of one founding species into multiple species and niches
Natural selection
Differential reproductive success over multiple generations
Vestigial organs
Body parts that seem to serve no purpose and have atrophied
Homology
Shared ancestry of a body part
Analogy
Shared function of a body part
Embryology
Idea that embryos in the womb tend to look like more primitive forms
Selective breeding
Breeders chose traits in animals that they want to pass on to next generation; domestication of plants and animals
Descent with modification
Darwin proposed that all life forms descended from common ancestors
Thomas Malthus
Said society needed checks because we would basically overpopulate the world and starve to death
Alfred Russel Wallace
Formulated his own theory of evolution at same time as Darwin; went to him for help which pushed Darwin to go public with his ideas
Fitness
Reproductive success
Differential reproduction
If the traits that give individuals a reproductive advantage are also heritable, then there will be a slightly higher proportion of fast rabbits or efficient algae in the next generation
Population
An interbreeding group of organisms
Mutation
An alteration in the DNA, which may or may not alter the function of a cell if it occurs in a gamete, it may be passed from generation to generation
Creation science
A creationist attempt to refute evolution
Intelligent design
Creationist school of thought that proposes that natural selection cannot account for the diversity and complexity or form and function seen in nature
Cellular and molecular genetics
Study at basic level of building blocks of bodies (cells) at the DNA level
Classical or Mendelian genetics
Looking at pedigree and tracking how various traits are passed from one generation to the next
Population genetics
Examining genetic variation with and between populations to gain insight into the evolutionary history of the populations and species as a whole
Phylogenetics
Determining evolutionary relationships between species
Pedigree
A diagram used in genetics that shows the transmission of a genetic trait over generations of a family
Prokaryotes
Single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, in which the genetic material is not separated by a nucleus from the rest of the cell
Eukaryotes
Cell that possesses a well-organized nucleus
Nucleus
In eukaryotic cells, the part of the cell in which the genetic material is separated from the rest of the cell (cytoplasm) by a plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
In eukaryotic cells, the region within a cell membrane that surrounds the nucleus; it contains organelles, which carry out the essential functions of the cell, such as energy production, metabolism, and protein synthesis
Somatic cells
Not sex cells
Gametes
Sex cells: sperm or eggs (ova)
Stem cells
Undifferential cells found in the developing embryo that can be induced to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types or tissues; also found in adults, although not as totipotent
Mitochondria
Organelles in the cytoplasm where energy production takes place; contains its own DNA
Ribosome
Structures composed primarily of RNA which are found primarily on the endoplasmic reticulum (site of protein synthesis)
Endoplasmic reticulum
Organelle in cytoplasm consisting of a folded membrane; increased space for metabolic reactions; some have knobs called rough ER
DNA
A double-stranded molecule that is the carrier of genetic information; each strand is composed of a linear sequence of nucleotides; the two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds that form between complementary bases
Proteins
Complex molecules formed from chains of amino acids (polypeptides) or from a complex of polypeptides; function as structural molecules, transport molecules, antibodies, enzymes, and hormones
Protein synthesis
The assembly of proteins from amino acids, which occurs at ribosomes in the cytoplasm and is based on info carried by mRNA
RNA
Single-stranded nucleic acid that performs critical functions during protein synthesis and comes in three forms: messenger, transfer, and ribosomal
Messenger RNA
Strand of RNA synthesized in the nucleus as a compliment to a specific gene (transcription); it carries the info for the sequence of amino acids to make a specific protein into the cytoplasm, where it is read at a ribosome and a protein molecule is synthe
Transfer RNA
RNA molecules that bind to specific amino acids and transport them to ribosomes to be used during protein synthesis
Nucleotide
Molecular building blocks of nucleic acids DNA and RNA; consists of a phosphate, sugar, and base
Base
Variable component of the nucleotides that form DNA and RNA; in DNA, they are adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine; in RNA, uracil replaces thymine
Adenine
Purine base that bonds with thymine or uracil
Guanine
Purine base that bonds with cytosine
Cytosine
Pyrimidine base that bonds with guanine
Thymine
Pyrimidine base that bonds with adenine
Uracil
Replaces thymine in RNA and bonds with adenine
Enzyme
A complex protein that is a catalyst for chemical processes in the body
Hemoglobin
Protein found in red blood cells that transports oxygen
Hormone
A natural substance (often a protein) produced by specialized cells in one location of the body that influences the activity or physiology of cells in a different location
Amino acids
Molecules that form the basic building blocks of protein; there are 20; 9 are essential (cannot be synthesized by the body)
Polypeptide
A molecule made up of a chain of amino acids
Genetic code
System whereby the nucleotide triplets in DNA and RNA contain the information for synthesizing proteins from the 20 amino acids (Francis Crick, 1961)
Codon
A triplet of nucleotide bases in mRNA that specifies an amino acid or the initiation or termination of a polypeptide sequence
Gene
The fundamental unit of heredity; consists of a sequence of DNA bases that carries the information for synthesizing a protein (or polypeptide) and occupies a specific chromosomal locus
Chromatin
The diffuse form of DNA as it exits during the interphase of the cell cycle
Mitosis
Somatic cell division in which a single cell divides to produce two identical daughter cells
Meiosis
Cell division that occurs in the testes and ovaries that leads to the formation of sperm and ova (gametes)
Chromosomes
Discrete structures composed of condensed DNA and supporting proteins
Centromere
Condensed and constricted region of a chromosome; during mitosis and meiosis, location where sister chromatids attach to one another
Diploid number
Full complement of paired chromosomes in somatic cell; in humans, the diploid number is 46 (23 pairs)
Haploid number
Number of chromosomes found in a gamete, representing one from each pair found in diploid somatic cell; in humans the haploid number is 23
Homologous chromosomes
Members of the same pairs of chromosomes (or autosomes); homologous chromosomes undergo crossing over during meiosis
Alleles
Alternate versions of a gene; alleles are distinguished from one another by their differing effects on the phenotypic expression of the same gene
Homozygous
Having the same allele at the loci for a gene on both members of a pair of homologous chromosomes (or autosomes)
Locus
The location of a gene on a chromosome; the locus for a gene is identified by the number of the chromosome on which it was found and its position on the chromosome
Heterozygous
Having two different alleles at the loci for a gene on a pair of homologous chromosomes (or autosomes)
Zygote
Fertilized egg
Crossing over
Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during first prophase of meiosis; mechanism for genetic recombination
Recombination
Rearrangement of genes on homologous chromosomes that occurs during crossing over in meiosis; the source of variation arising out of sexual reproduction; important for increasing rates of natural selection
Karyotype
Complete chromosomal complement of an individual; usually based on a photograph of the chromosomes visualized under the microscope
Autosomes
Any chromosome other than the sex chromosomes
Sex chromosomes
In mammals, chromosomes X and Y; XX produces females and XY produces male
Nondisjunction error
The failure of homologous chromosomes (chromatids) to separate properly during cell division; which it occurs during meiosis, it may lead to the formation of gametes that are missing a chromosome or have an extra copy of a chromosome
Genome
The sum total of all the genes carried by an individual
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Method for amplifying DNA sequences using the Taq polymerase enzyme; can potentially produce million or billions of DNA segment starting from a very small number of DNA
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
Small loop of DNA found in the mitochondria; clonally and maternally inherited
Ancient DNA
Bones as old as 100,000 yrs. old can yield DNA; easier to amplify mtDNA than nuclear DNA
Structural genes
Genes that contain the information to make a protein
Regulatory genes
Guide the expression of structural genes without coding for a protein themselves
Genotype
Genetic makeup of an individual; can refer to the entire genetic compliment or more narrowly to the alleles present at a specific locus on two homologous chromosomes
Phenotype
An observable or measurable feature of an organism; can be anatomical, biochemical, or behavioral
ABO blood type system
The genetic system for one of the proteins found on the surface of red blood cells; consists of one gene with 3 alleles: A, B, and O
Recessive
In a diploid organism, an allele that must be present in 2 copies (homozygous) in order to be expressed
Dominant
In a diploid organism, an allele expressed when present on only one pair of homologous chromosomes
Co-dominant
In a diploid organism, two different alleles of a gene expressed in a heterozygous individual
Blending inheritance
Discredited 19th century idea that genetic factors from parents averaged out or blended together when passed on to offspring
Gregor Mendel
Observed pea plants to study genetics and inheritance
Particulate inheritance
Concept of heredity based on transmission of genes (alleles) according to Mendelian principles
Mendel's law of segregation
During the formation of gametes, the paired unit factors separate, or segregate, randomly so that each sex cell receives one or the other with equal likelihood
Punnett square
Allows us to illustrate parental genetic contributions to offspring and possible genotypes of offspring
Mendel's law of independent assortment
During gamete formation, segregating pairs unit factors assort independently of each other
Linkage
Genes that are found on same chromosome are said to be linked; the closer together two genes are on a chromosome, the greater the linkage and the less likely they are to be separated during crossing-over
Sickle cell disease
An autosomal recessive disease caused by a point mutation in a n allele that codes for one of the polypeptide chains of the hemoglobin protein
Point mutation
Change in base sequence of a gene that results from the change of a single base to a different base
Autosomal recessive disease
Caused by a recessive allele; one copy of the allele must be inherited from each parent
Insertion mutation
Change in base sequence of a gene that results from addition of one or more base pairs in DNA
Deletion mutation
Change in base sequence of a gene that results from loss of one or more base pairs in DNA
Trinucleotide repeat diseases
Family of autosomal dominant diseases that is caused by the insertion of multiple copies of a 3-base pair sequence (CAG) that, which codes for amino acid glutamine; typically, the more copies inserted into the gene, the more serious it is (ex: Huntington
Autosomal dominant disease
Caused by a dominant allele; only one copy needs to be inherited from either parent
Huntington disease
Trinucleotide repeat disease where the sequence CAG is repeated 40-180 times; normal is 10-35 times
X-linked disorders
Genetic conditions that result from mutations to genes on the X-chromosome; almost always expressed in males, who have one copy of the X-chromosome; in females, second X-chromosome usually protects from x-linked disorders
Hemophilia
Absence of clotting factor protein in blood; vulnerable to hemorrhage and severe joint damage
Cystic fibrosis
Autosomal recessive trait where body produces an abnormally viscous mucous and can't shed it
Tay-Sachs disease
Autosomal recessive trait where the body produces a lipid that breaks down the nervous system
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Autosomal recessive condition that leads to the accumulation of large quantities of the amino acid phenylalanine, which causes mental retardation and other phenotypic abnormalities
Achondroplasia
Autosomal dominant disorder; a particular kind of dwarfism
Fragile X syndrome
Associated with the expansion of a single trinucleotide gene sequence (CGG) on the X-chromosome, and results in a failure to express the protein coded by the FMR1 gene, which is required for normal neural development
Red-green color blindness
X-linked disorder where one cannot see the colors red and green
Lactose tolerance
Autosomal dominant trait; vast majority of the world is lactose intolerant except northern Europeans and some pastoral Africans
Qualitative variation
Phenotypic variation that can be characterized as belonging to discrete, observable categories
Quantitative variation
Phenotypic variation that is characterized by the distribution of continuous variation (expressed using a numerical measure) within a population
Polygenic traits
Phenotypic traits that result from the combined action of more than one gene; most complex traits are polygenic
Pleiotropy
The phenomenon of a single gene having multiple phenotypic effects
Heritability
The proportion of total phenotypic variability observed for a given trait that can be ascribed to genetic factors
Twin method
A method for estimating the heritability of a phenotypic trait by comparing the concordance rates of identical and fraternal twins
Directional selection
Natural selection that drives evolutionary change by selecting for greater or lesser frequency of a given trait in a population
Stabilizing selection
Selection that maintains certain phenotype by selecting against deviations from it
Gene flow
Movement of genes between populations
Inbreeding
Mating between close relatives
Genetic drift
Random changes in gene frequency in a population
Founder effect
A component of genetic drift theory, stating that new populations that become isolated from the parent population carry only the genetic variation of the founders
Genetic bottleneck
Temporary dramatic reduction in size of a population or species
Sexual selection
Differential reproductive success within one sex of any species
Sexual dimorphism
Difference in size, shape or color between the sexes
Reproductive potential
The possible output of offspring by one sex
Reproductive variance
A measure of variation from the mean of a population in the reproductive potential of one sex compared with the other
Systematics
Branch of biology that describes patterns of organismal variation
Convergent evolution
Similar form or function brought about by natural selection under similar environments rather than shared ancestry
Cladistics
Method of classification using ancestral and derived traits to distinguish patterns of evolution within lineages
Cladogram
Branching diagram showing evolved relationships among members of a lineage
Species
An interbreeding group of animals or plants that are reproductively isolated through anatomy, ecology, behavior, or geographic distribution from all other such groups
Speciation
Formation of one or more new species via reproductive isolation
Biological species concept
Defines species as interbreeding populations reproductively isolated from other such populations
Evolutionary species concept
Defines species as evolutionary lineages with their own unique identity
Ecological species concept
Defines species based on the uniqueness of their ecological niche
Recognition species concept
Defines species based on unique traits or behaviors that allow members of one species to identify each other for mating
Reproductive isolating mechanisms (RIMs)
Any factor - behavioral, ecological, or anatomical - that prevent a male and female of two different species from hybridizing
Anagenesis
Evolution of a trait or a species into another over a period of time
Cladogenesis
Evolution through the branching of a species or a lineage
Allopatric speciation
Speciation occurring via geographic isolation
Parapatric speciation
Speciation occurring when two populations have continuous distributions and some phenotypes in that distribution are more favorable than others
Sympatric speciation
Speciation occurring in the geographic location
Gradualism
Darwinian view of slow, incremental evolutionary change
Macroevolution
Evolution of major phenotypic changes over relatively short time periods
Punctuated equilibrium
Model of evolution characterized by rapid bursts of change, followed by long periods of stasis
Adaptationism
A premise that all aspects of an organism have been molded by natural selection to a form optimal for enhancing reproductive success
Reductionism
Paradigm that an organism is the sum of many evolved parts and that organisms can best be understood rough an adaptionist approach
Null hypothesis
The starting assumption for scientific inquiry, that one's research results occur by random chance; one's hypothesis must challenge this initial assumption
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
The theoretical distribution of alleles in given population in the absence of evolution, expressed as a mathematical equation
Group selection
Notion, largely discredited by the rise of Darwinian theory, proposing that animals act for the good of their social group or of their species
Kin selection
Principle that animals behave preferentially toward their genetic kin; formulated by William Hamilton
Inclusive fitness
Reproductive success of an organism plus the fitness of its close kin