Biological Anthropology Exam 1 Review

Primate

Member of the mammalian order Primates, including prosmians, monkeys, apes, and humans, defined by a suite of anatomical and behavioral traits

Evolution

A change in the frequency of a gene or a trait in a population over multiple generations

Biological anthropology

The study of humans as biological organisms, considered in an evolutionary framework; sometimes called physical anthropology (origin of modern species/biological variation)

Hominin

A member of the primate family Hominidae, distinguished by bipedal posture and, in more recently evolved species, a large brain

Adaptation

A trait that increases the reproductive success of an organism, produced by natural selection in the context of a particular environment

Anthropology

The study of humankind in a cross-cultural context...includes cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, archaeology, and biological anthropology (in all times and places)

Culture

The sum total of learned traditions, values and beliefs that groups of people (and a few species of highly-intelligent animals) possess

Biocultural anthropology

The study of the interaction between biology and culture, which plays a role in most human traits

Cultural anthropology

The study of human societies in a cross-cultural context; the subdivision that includes ethnology, archaeology, and linguistics (all aspects of human behavior)

Ethnology

The study of human societies, their traditions, rituals, beliefs, and the differences between societies in these traits

Ethnography

The practice of cultural anthropology; Studying the minute to minute workings of human societies; especially non-Western

Linguistic anthropology

The comparative study of language, its origins, and use in culture; also called anthropological linguistics; acquisition in infancy and childhood

Archaeology

The study of the material culture of past peoples

Artifacts

The objects, from tools to art, left by earlier generations of people

Material culture

The objects or artifacts of past human societies

Paleoanthropology

The study of the fossil record of ancestral humans and their primate kin

Osteology

The study of the skeleton

Paleopathology

The study of diseases in ancestral human populations

Bioarchaeology

The study of human remains in an archaeological context

Forensic anthropology

The study of human remains applied to legal context

Primatology

The study of the nonhuman primates and their anatomy, genetics, behavior, and ecology

Human biology

Human growth and development, adaptation to environment extremes and human genetics

Physical anthropology

The study of humans as biological organisms, considered in an evolutionary framework

Observation

Gathering of scientific information by watching a phenomenon

Deduction

A conclusion that follows logically from a set of observations

Hypothesis

A preliminary explanation of a phenomenon; Formation is the first step of the scientific method

Experimentation

Testing a hypothesis

Data

Scientific evidence produced by an experiment or by observation, from which scientific conclusions are made

Scientific method

Standard scientific research procedure in which a hypothesis is stated, data are collected to test it, and the hypothesis is either supported or refuted

Falsifiable

Able to be shown to be false

Paradigm

A conceptual framework useful for understanding a body of evidence

Immutability

Stasis; lack of change

Polygenism

Ancient belief that all people are derived from multiple creations

Monogenism

Ancient belief that people are derived from single creation

Taxonomy

The science of biological classification

Binomial nomenclature

Linnaean naming system for all organisms, consisting of a genus and species label (ex. Homo sapien)

Taxon

A group of organisms assigned to a particular category

Catastrophism

Theory that there have been multiple creations interspersed by great natural disasters such as Noah's Ark

Theory of inheritance by acquired characteristics

Discredited theory of evolutionary change proposed that changes that occur during the lifetime of an individual, through use or disuse, can be passed on to the next generation

Carolus Linnaeus

Swedish botanist; author of Sytema Naturae; father of taxonomy

Comte de Buffon

Accepted that animals who migrate to different climates adapted, but had no mechanism to explain this; said animals in New World were weaker and smaller but was proved wrong

Georges Cuvier

Opponent of evolutionary change despite fossil discoveries; advocated catastrophism

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Created Theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics (Lamarckianism); breakthrough= seeing relationship between organisms and environments; error = thinking evolution could take place in a lifetime

Lysenkoism

Soviet-era research program that tried to apply Lamarckian thinking to agricultural production

Uniformitarianism

Theory that the same geological process we observe today was operating in the past; requires great time and depth of age to Earth

James Hutton

Studied layering of rock formations (stratigraphy); advocated uniformitarianism

Charles Lyell

Argued that slow gradual change was the way of the physical world and one would find more primitive life in older rocks; published Principles of Geology which Darwin read many times on his voyage

Charles Darwin

Ardent naturalist from an early age; spent 5 years of his life traveling around the world studying nature; discovered theory of evolution and natural selection especially from Galapagos Islands and studying finches

Biogeography

The distribution of animals and plants on the earth

Adaptive radiation

Diversification of one founding species into multiple species and niches

Natural selection

Differential reproductive success over multiple generations

Vestigial organs

Body parts that seem to serve no purpose and have atrophied

Homology

Shared ancestry of a body part

Analogy

Shared function of a body part

Embryology

Idea that embryos in the womb tend to look like more primitive forms

Selective breeding

Breeders chose traits in animals that they want to pass on to next generation; domestication of plants and animals

Descent with modification

Darwin proposed that all life forms descended from common ancestors

Thomas Malthus

Said society needed checks because we would basically overpopulate the world and starve to death

Alfred Russel Wallace

Formulated his own theory of evolution at same time as Darwin; went to him for help which pushed Darwin to go public with his ideas

Fitness

Reproductive success

Differential reproduction

If the traits that give individuals a reproductive advantage are also heritable, then there will be a slightly higher proportion of fast rabbits or efficient algae in the next generation

Population

An interbreeding group of organisms

Mutation

An alteration in the DNA, which may or may not alter the function of a cell if it occurs in a gamete, it may be passed from generation to generation

Creation science

A creationist attempt to refute evolution

Intelligent design

Creationist school of thought that proposes that natural selection cannot account for the diversity and complexity or form and function seen in nature

Cellular and molecular genetics

Study at basic level of building blocks of bodies (cells) at the DNA level

Classical or Mendelian genetics

Looking at pedigree and tracking how various traits are passed from one generation to the next

Population genetics

Examining genetic variation with and between populations to gain insight into the evolutionary history of the populations and species as a whole

Phylogenetics

Determining evolutionary relationships between species

Pedigree

A diagram used in genetics that shows the transmission of a genetic trait over generations of a family

Prokaryotes

Single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, in which the genetic material is not separated by a nucleus from the rest of the cell

Eukaryotes

Cell that possesses a well-organized nucleus

Nucleus

In eukaryotic cells, the part of the cell in which the genetic material is separated from the rest of the cell (cytoplasm) by a plasma membrane

Cytoplasm

In eukaryotic cells, the region within a cell membrane that surrounds the nucleus; it contains organelles, which carry out the essential functions of the cell, such as energy production, metabolism, and protein synthesis

Somatic cells

Not sex cells

Gametes

Sex cells: sperm or eggs (ova)

Stem cells

Undifferential cells found in the developing embryo that can be induced to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types or tissues; also found in adults, although not as totipotent

Mitochondria

Organelles in the cytoplasm where energy production takes place; contains its own DNA

Ribosome

Structures composed primarily of RNA which are found primarily on the endoplasmic reticulum (site of protein synthesis)

Endoplasmic reticulum

Organelle in cytoplasm consisting of a folded membrane; increased space for metabolic reactions; some have knobs called rough ER

DNA

A double-stranded molecule that is the carrier of genetic information; each strand is composed of a linear sequence of nucleotides; the two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds that form between complementary bases

Proteins

Complex molecules formed from chains of amino acids (polypeptides) or from a complex of polypeptides; function as structural molecules, transport molecules, antibodies, enzymes, and hormones

Protein synthesis

The assembly of proteins from amino acids, which occurs at ribosomes in the cytoplasm and is based on info carried by mRNA

RNA

Single-stranded nucleic acid that performs critical functions during protein synthesis and comes in three forms: messenger, transfer, and ribosomal

Messenger RNA

Strand of RNA synthesized in the nucleus as a compliment to a specific gene (transcription); it carries the info for the sequence of amino acids to make a specific protein into the cytoplasm, where it is read at a ribosome and a protein molecule is synthe

Transfer RNA

RNA molecules that bind to specific amino acids and transport them to ribosomes to be used during protein synthesis

Nucleotide

Molecular building blocks of nucleic acids DNA and RNA; consists of a phosphate, sugar, and base

Base

Variable component of the nucleotides that form DNA and RNA; in DNA, they are adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine; in RNA, uracil replaces thymine

Adenine

Purine base that bonds with thymine or uracil

Guanine

Purine base that bonds with cytosine

Cytosine

Pyrimidine base that bonds with guanine

Thymine

Pyrimidine base that bonds with adenine

Uracil

Replaces thymine in RNA and bonds with adenine

Enzyme

A complex protein that is a catalyst for chemical processes in the body

Hemoglobin

Protein found in red blood cells that transports oxygen

Hormone

A natural substance (often a protein) produced by specialized cells in one location of the body that influences the activity or physiology of cells in a different location

Amino acids

Molecules that form the basic building blocks of protein; there are 20; 9 are essential (cannot be synthesized by the body)

Polypeptide

A molecule made up of a chain of amino acids

Genetic code

System whereby the nucleotide triplets in DNA and RNA contain the information for synthesizing proteins from the 20 amino acids (Francis Crick, 1961)

Codon

A triplet of nucleotide bases in mRNA that specifies an amino acid or the initiation or termination of a polypeptide sequence

Gene

The fundamental unit of heredity; consists of a sequence of DNA bases that carries the information for synthesizing a protein (or polypeptide) and occupies a specific chromosomal locus

Chromatin

The diffuse form of DNA as it exits during the interphase of the cell cycle

Mitosis

Somatic cell division in which a single cell divides to produce two identical daughter cells

Meiosis

Cell division that occurs in the testes and ovaries that leads to the formation of sperm and ova (gametes)

Chromosomes

Discrete structures composed of condensed DNA and supporting proteins

Centromere

Condensed and constricted region of a chromosome; during mitosis and meiosis, location where sister chromatids attach to one another

Diploid number

Full complement of paired chromosomes in somatic cell; in humans, the diploid number is 46 (23 pairs)

Haploid number

Number of chromosomes found in a gamete, representing one from each pair found in diploid somatic cell; in humans the haploid number is 23

Homologous chromosomes

Members of the same pairs of chromosomes (or autosomes); homologous chromosomes undergo crossing over during meiosis

Alleles

Alternate versions of a gene; alleles are distinguished from one another by their differing effects on the phenotypic expression of the same gene

Homozygous

Having the same allele at the loci for a gene on both members of a pair of homologous chromosomes (or autosomes)

Locus

The location of a gene on a chromosome; the locus for a gene is identified by the number of the chromosome on which it was found and its position on the chromosome

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles at the loci for a gene on a pair of homologous chromosomes (or autosomes)

Zygote

Fertilized egg

Crossing over

Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during first prophase of meiosis; mechanism for genetic recombination

Recombination

Rearrangement of genes on homologous chromosomes that occurs during crossing over in meiosis; the source of variation arising out of sexual reproduction; important for increasing rates of natural selection

Karyotype

Complete chromosomal complement of an individual; usually based on a photograph of the chromosomes visualized under the microscope

Autosomes

Any chromosome other than the sex chromosomes

Sex chromosomes

In mammals, chromosomes X and Y; XX produces females and XY produces male

Nondisjunction error

The failure of homologous chromosomes (chromatids) to separate properly during cell division; which it occurs during meiosis, it may lead to the formation of gametes that are missing a chromosome or have an extra copy of a chromosome

Genome

The sum total of all the genes carried by an individual

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

Method for amplifying DNA sequences using the Taq polymerase enzyme; can potentially produce million or billions of DNA segment starting from a very small number of DNA

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

Small loop of DNA found in the mitochondria; clonally and maternally inherited

Ancient DNA

Bones as old as 100,000 yrs. old can yield DNA; easier to amplify mtDNA than nuclear DNA

Structural genes

Genes that contain the information to make a protein

Regulatory genes

Guide the expression of structural genes without coding for a protein themselves

Genotype

Genetic makeup of an individual; can refer to the entire genetic compliment or more narrowly to the alleles present at a specific locus on two homologous chromosomes

Phenotype

An observable or measurable feature of an organism; can be anatomical, biochemical, or behavioral

ABO blood type system

The genetic system for one of the proteins found on the surface of red blood cells; consists of one gene with 3 alleles: A, B, and O

Recessive

In a diploid organism, an allele that must be present in 2 copies (homozygous) in order to be expressed

Dominant

In a diploid organism, an allele expressed when present on only one pair of homologous chromosomes

Co-dominant

In a diploid organism, two different alleles of a gene expressed in a heterozygous individual

Blending inheritance

Discredited 19th century idea that genetic factors from parents averaged out or blended together when passed on to offspring

Gregor Mendel

Observed pea plants to study genetics and inheritance

Particulate inheritance

Concept of heredity based on transmission of genes (alleles) according to Mendelian principles

Mendel's law of segregation

During the formation of gametes, the paired unit factors separate, or segregate, randomly so that each sex cell receives one or the other with equal likelihood

Punnett square

Allows us to illustrate parental genetic contributions to offspring and possible genotypes of offspring

Mendel's law of independent assortment

During gamete formation, segregating pairs unit factors assort independently of each other

Linkage

Genes that are found on same chromosome are said to be linked; the closer together two genes are on a chromosome, the greater the linkage and the less likely they are to be separated during crossing-over

Sickle cell disease

An autosomal recessive disease caused by a point mutation in a n allele that codes for one of the polypeptide chains of the hemoglobin protein

Point mutation

Change in base sequence of a gene that results from the change of a single base to a different base

Autosomal recessive disease

Caused by a recessive allele; one copy of the allele must be inherited from each parent

Insertion mutation

Change in base sequence of a gene that results from addition of one or more base pairs in DNA

Deletion mutation

Change in base sequence of a gene that results from loss of one or more base pairs in DNA

Trinucleotide repeat diseases

Family of autosomal dominant diseases that is caused by the insertion of multiple copies of a 3-base pair sequence (CAG) that, which codes for amino acid glutamine; typically, the more copies inserted into the gene, the more serious it is (ex: Huntington

Autosomal dominant disease

Caused by a dominant allele; only one copy needs to be inherited from either parent

Huntington disease

Trinucleotide repeat disease where the sequence CAG is repeated 40-180 times; normal is 10-35 times

X-linked disorders

Genetic conditions that result from mutations to genes on the X-chromosome; almost always expressed in males, who have one copy of the X-chromosome; in females, second X-chromosome usually protects from x-linked disorders

Hemophilia

Absence of clotting factor protein in blood; vulnerable to hemorrhage and severe joint damage

Cystic fibrosis

Autosomal recessive trait where body produces an abnormally viscous mucous and can't shed it

Tay-Sachs disease

Autosomal recessive trait where the body produces a lipid that breaks down the nervous system

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Autosomal recessive condition that leads to the accumulation of large quantities of the amino acid phenylalanine, which causes mental retardation and other phenotypic abnormalities

Achondroplasia

Autosomal dominant disorder; a particular kind of dwarfism

Fragile X syndrome

Associated with the expansion of a single trinucleotide gene sequence (CGG) on the X-chromosome, and results in a failure to express the protein coded by the FMR1 gene, which is required for normal neural development

Red-green color blindness

X-linked disorder where one cannot see the colors red and green

Lactose tolerance

Autosomal dominant trait; vast majority of the world is lactose intolerant except northern Europeans and some pastoral Africans

Qualitative variation

Phenotypic variation that can be characterized as belonging to discrete, observable categories

Quantitative variation

Phenotypic variation that is characterized by the distribution of continuous variation (expressed using a numerical measure) within a population

Polygenic traits

Phenotypic traits that result from the combined action of more than one gene; most complex traits are polygenic

Pleiotropy

The phenomenon of a single gene having multiple phenotypic effects

Heritability

The proportion of total phenotypic variability observed for a given trait that can be ascribed to genetic factors

Twin method

A method for estimating the heritability of a phenotypic trait by comparing the concordance rates of identical and fraternal twins

Directional selection

Natural selection that drives evolutionary change by selecting for greater or lesser frequency of a given trait in a population

Stabilizing selection

Selection that maintains certain phenotype by selecting against deviations from it

Gene flow

Movement of genes between populations

Inbreeding

Mating between close relatives

Genetic drift

Random changes in gene frequency in a population

Founder effect

A component of genetic drift theory, stating that new populations that become isolated from the parent population carry only the genetic variation of the founders

Genetic bottleneck

Temporary dramatic reduction in size of a population or species

Sexual selection

Differential reproductive success within one sex of any species

Sexual dimorphism

Difference in size, shape or color between the sexes

Reproductive potential

The possible output of offspring by one sex

Reproductive variance

A measure of variation from the mean of a population in the reproductive potential of one sex compared with the other

Systematics

Branch of biology that describes patterns of organismal variation

Convergent evolution

Similar form or function brought about by natural selection under similar environments rather than shared ancestry

Cladistics

Method of classification using ancestral and derived traits to distinguish patterns of evolution within lineages

Cladogram

Branching diagram showing evolved relationships among members of a lineage

Species

An interbreeding group of animals or plants that are reproductively isolated through anatomy, ecology, behavior, or geographic distribution from all other such groups

Speciation

Formation of one or more new species via reproductive isolation

Biological species concept

Defines species as interbreeding populations reproductively isolated from other such populations

Evolutionary species concept

Defines species as evolutionary lineages with their own unique identity

Ecological species concept

Defines species based on the uniqueness of their ecological niche

Recognition species concept

Defines species based on unique traits or behaviors that allow members of one species to identify each other for mating

Reproductive isolating mechanisms (RIMs)

Any factor - behavioral, ecological, or anatomical - that prevent a male and female of two different species from hybridizing

Anagenesis

Evolution of a trait or a species into another over a period of time

Cladogenesis

Evolution through the branching of a species or a lineage

Allopatric speciation

Speciation occurring via geographic isolation

Parapatric speciation

Speciation occurring when two populations have continuous distributions and some phenotypes in that distribution are more favorable than others

Sympatric speciation

Speciation occurring in the geographic location

Gradualism

Darwinian view of slow, incremental evolutionary change

Macroevolution

Evolution of major phenotypic changes over relatively short time periods

Punctuated equilibrium

Model of evolution characterized by rapid bursts of change, followed by long periods of stasis

Adaptationism

A premise that all aspects of an organism have been molded by natural selection to a form optimal for enhancing reproductive success

Reductionism

Paradigm that an organism is the sum of many evolved parts and that organisms can best be understood rough an adaptionist approach

Null hypothesis

The starting assumption for scientific inquiry, that one's research results occur by random chance; one's hypothesis must challenge this initial assumption

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

The theoretical distribution of alleles in given population in the absence of evolution, expressed as a mathematical equation

Group selection

Notion, largely discredited by the rise of Darwinian theory, proposing that animals act for the good of their social group or of their species

Kin selection

Principle that animals behave preferentially toward their genetic kin; formulated by William Hamilton

Inclusive fitness

Reproductive success of an organism plus the fitness of its close kin