Introduction to Physical Anthropology

hominins

Colloquial term for members of the evolutionary group that includes modern humans and now extinct bipedal relatives.

species

A group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Members of one species are reproductively isolated from members of all other species.

bipedally

On two feet; walking habitually on two legs.

anthropology

The field of inquiry that studies human culture and evolutionary aspects of human biology; includes cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical, or biological, anthropology.

primates

Members of the mammalian order Primates, which includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans.

evolution

A change in the genetic structure of a population. The term is also frequently used to refer to the appearance of a new species.

adaptation

An anatomical, physiological, or behavioral response of organisms or populations to the environment. Adaptations result from evolutionary change, specifically, as a result of natural selection.

culture

Behavioral aspects of human adaptation, including technology, traditions, language, religion, marriage patterns, and social roles. Culture is a set of learned behaviors transmitted from one generation to the next by nonbiological or non-genetic means.

biocultural evolution

The mutual, interactive evolution of human biology and culture; the concept that biology makes culture possible and that developing culture further influences the direction of biological evolution; a basic concept in understanding the unique components of

ethnographies

Detailed descriptive studies of human societies. In cultural anthropology, an ethnography is traditionally the study of a non-Western society.

paleoanthropology

An interdisciplinary approach to the study of earlier hominins- their chronology, physical structure, archaeological remains, habitats, etc.

DNA

The double-stranded molecule that contains the genetic code. DNA is a main component of chromosomes.

osteology

The study of skeletal material. Human osteology focuses on the interpretation of the skeletal remains from archaeological sites, skeletal anatomy, bone physiology, and growth and development. Some of the same techniques are used in paleoanthropology to st

paleopathology

The branch of osteology that studies the evidence of disease and injury in human skeletal or sometimes mummified remains from archaeological sites.

forensic anthropology

An applied anthropological approach dealing with legal matters. Forensic anthropologists work with coroners and others in identifying and analyzing human remains.

primatology

The study of biology and behavior of nonhuman primates (lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, and apes).

scientific method

An approach to research whereby a problem is identified, a hypotheses is stated, and that hypotheses is tested by collecting and analyzing data.

theory

A broad statement of scientific relationships or underlying principles that has been substantially verified through the testing of hypotheses.

ethnocentric

Viewing other cultures from the inherently biased perspective of one's own culture. Ethnocentrism often results in other cultures being seen as inferior to one's own.

relativistic

Viewing entities as they relate to something else. Cultural relativism is the view that cultures have merits within their own historical and environmental contexts.

Human Genome Project

An international effort to map the complete human genetic code. This effort was essentially completed in 2001, though analysis is ongoing.

macroevolution

Evolutionary change above the species level, including the origin of a new group of organisms or a shift in the broad pattern of evolutionary change over a long period of time. Examples of macroevolutionary change include the appearance of major new featu

microevolution

Evolutionary change below the species level; change in the allele frequencies in a population over generations.

binomial nomenclature

In taxonomy, the convention established by Carolus Linnaeus whereby genus and species names are used to refer to species.

catastrophism

The view that the earth's geological landscape is the result of violent cataclysmic events. Cuvier promoted this view, especially in opposition to Lamarck.

Christian fundamentalists

Adherents to a movement in American Protestantism that began in the early 20th century. This group holds that the teachings of the Bible are infallible and that the scriptures are to be taken literally.

creationism/ intelligent design

A Grand Designer created all anatomical structures to meet the purpose for which they were required; belief that all life is as it was when it was created

fitness/ genetic fitness/ differential reproductive success

Pertaining to natural selection, a measure of the relative reproductive success of individuals. Fitness can be measured by an individual's genetic contribution to the next generation compared to that of other individuals.

fixity of species

The notion that species, once created, can never change; an idea diametrically opposed to theories of biological evolution.

natural selection

The most critical mechanism of evolutionary change, first described by Charles Darwin; refers to genetic change or changes in the frequencies of certain traits in populations due to genetic fitness.

reproductive success

The number of offspring an individual produces and rears to the reproductive age; an individual's genetic contribution to the next generation.

reproductively isolated

Pertaining to groups of organisms that that, mainly because of genetic differences, are prevented from mating and producing offspring with members of other such groups.

selective pressures

Forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals.

taxonomy

The branch of science concerned with the rules of classifying organisms on the basis of evolutionary relationships.

uniformitarianism

The theory that the earth's features are the result of long-term processes that continue to operate in the present just as they did in the past. Elaborated on by Lyell, this theory opposed catastrophism and contributed strongly to the concept of immense g

Lamarck

-Inheritance of acquired traits; Lamarckianism
-Ex. Elongation of giraffe's necks occurred because of need and necessity
-Different than Darwin's view
-A trait acquired by an animal during its lifetime can be passed on to offspring

Cuvier

-Introduced concept of extinction to explain the disappearance of animals represented by fossils
-Insisted on fixity of species
-Believed in catastrophism

Lyell

-Biggest influence on Darwin
-Uniformitarianism
-Befriended Darwin during his study of life
-Encouraged Darwin to publish work

Darwin

-Originally studying in seminary
-Went on journey around the world and made many observations (finches)
-Began to ask questions about distribution of fossils and why some animals look alike
-Created theory of natural selection

eukaryotic cell

A type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. Examples of organisms with these cells are protists, plants, fungi, and animals.

protozoa

Single celled organisms with the ability to move independently.

amino acids

Small molecules that are the components of proteins.

chromosomes

Discrete structures composed of DNA and proteins found only in the nucleus of the cells. Chromosomes are visible under magnification only during certain phases of cell division.

gametes

Reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals) developed from precursor cells in ovaries and testes.

gene

A sequence of DNA bases that specifies the order of amino acids in an entire protein, a portion of a protein, or any functional product, like RNA. A gene may be made up of hundreds or thousands of DNA bases organized into coding and noncoding segments.

meiosis

Cell division in specialized cells in ovaries and testes. Meiosis involves two divisions and results in four daughter cells, each containing only half the original number of chromosomes. These cells can develop into gametes.

mitosis

Simple cell division; the process by which somatic cells divide to produce two identical daughters cells.

nucleotide

Basic units of the DNA molecule, composed of sugar, a phosphate, and one of four DNA bases.

organelle

One of the small bodies that are found in the cytoplasm of a cell and that are specialized to perform a specific function.

recombination

The exchange of genetic material between paired chromosomes during meiosis

RNA

A single-stranded molecule similar in structure to DNA. Three forms of RNA are essential to protein synthesis: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA

somatic cell

Basically, all the cells in the body except those involved with reproduction.

zygote

A cell formed by the union of an egg cell and a sperm cell. It contains the full complement of chromosomes and has the potential to develop into an entire organism.

allele

Alternate forms of a gene. Alleles occur at the same locus on both members of a pair of chromosomes, and they influence the same trait. But because they're slightly different from one another, their action may result in different expressions of that trait

dominant

In genetics, describing a trait governed by an allele that's expressed in the presence of another allele, in heterozygotes. Dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles in heterozygotes.

recessive

Describing a trait that isn't expressed in heterozygotes; also refers to the allele that governs the trait. For a recessive allele to be expressed, an individual must have two copies of of it, the individual must be homozygous.

Mendelian trait

Characteristics that are influenced by alleles at only one genetic locus. Examples include many blood types, such as ABO. Many genetic disorders, including sickle-cell anemia and Tay-Sachs disease, are also Mendelian traits.

phenotype

The observable or detectable physical characteristics of an organism; the detectable expressions of genotypes, frequently influenced by environmental factors.

founder effect

A type of genetic drift in which allele frequencies are altered in small populations that are taken from, or are remnants of, larger populations.

gene flow

Exchange of genes between populations.

gene pool

The total complement of genes shared by the reproductive members of a population.

directional change

Form of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of a curve.

locus

The position on a chromosome where a given gene occurs.

polygenic

Referring to traits that are influenced by genes at two or more loci. Many polygenic traits are influenced by environment factors such as nutrition and exposure to sunlight.

population

Within a species, a community of individuals where mates are usually found.

principle of independent assortment

The distribution of one pair of alleles into gametes doesn't influence the distribution of another pair. The genes controlling different traits are inherited independently of one another.

principle of segregation

Genes occur in pair because because chromosomes occur in pairs. During gamete formation, the members of each pair of alleles separate, so that each gamete contains one member of each pair.

random assortment

The chance distribution of chromosomes to daughter cells during meiosis. Along with recombination, random assortment is an important source of genetic variation, but not new alleles.

sickle-cell trait

Heterozygous condition in which a person has one HB^A allele and on Hb^S allele. Thus they have some normal hemoglobin.

genetic variation

The number and frequency of alleles that are present in a particular population.

precursor world theory

Life on Earth first appeared around 3.2 billion years ago in the form of single-celled organisms called stromatolites (blue-green algae).

Gregor Mendel's experiments

-A monk living in the 19th century in what is now the Czech Republic
-Crossed strains of purebred plants and studied their progeny
-His work illustrates the basic rules of inheritance (dominance and recessiveness of alleles)