argon-argon (40Ar/39Ar) method
Working on a similar basis as the potassium-argon method, this approach uses the ratio of argon-40 to argon-39 for dating igneous and metamorphic rocks; it offers precision and temporal range advantages for dating some early hominin sites.
artifacts
Objects created and used by humans.
biostratigraphy
Relative dating technique using comparison of fossils from different stratagraphic sequences to estimate which layers are older and which are younger
contexts
The spatial and temporal associations of artifacts and features in an archaeological site. Archaeologists distinguish between primary context, which simply means that it has not been disturbed since it was originally seposited, and secondary context, whic
cross-dating
relative dating method that estimates the age of artifacts and features based on their similarities with comparable materials from dated contexts
dendrochronology
the study of the annual rings of trees in determining the dates and chronological order of past events
ecofacts
Non-artifactual organic and environmental remains which have cultural relevance, e.g. faunal and floral material as well as soils and sediments.
ethnoarchaeology
The study of contemporary peoples to determine how human behavior is translated into the archaeological record.
experimental archaeology
ancient conditions are recreated so that an archaeologist can test a hypothesis
fission-track dating
an absolute dating method based on the measurement of the number of tracks left by the decay of uranium-238
haft
the handle of a weapon or tool
half-life
The time required for one half of the atoms of a radioisotope to emit radiation an decay products
home-based foragers
hominins that hunt, scavenge, or collect food and raw materials from the general locality where they habitually live and bring these materials back to some central or home base site to be shared with other members of their coresiding group
hominins
Member of a species on the human branch of the evolutionary tree; a species more closely related to humans than to chimpanzees
index fossils
distinctive fossil used to compare the relative ages of fossils
Lower Paleolithic
Old Stone Age beginning with the earliest Oldowan tools spanning from about 200,000 or 250,000 to 2.6 million years ago.
paleomagnetism
The study of the alignment of magnetic minerals in rock,specifically as it relates to the reversal of Earth's magnetic poles; also the magnetic properties that rock requires during formation
potassium-argon (K/Ar) method
another decay-based dating method. Used only on volcanic rocks (rocks that are heated to a very high temperature). Range: few billion years up to 100,000 BP.
principle of superpositioning
In a sequence of undisturbed rocks, the oldest rocks will be at the bottom and the youngest rocks at the top.
protohominins
the earliest members of the hominin lineage, as yet only poorly represented in the fossil record; thus, the reconstruction of their structure and behavior is largely hypothetical
radiocarbon dating
A chemical analysis used to determine the age of organic materials based on their content of the radioisotope carbon-14
radiometric decay
a measure of the rate at which certain radioactive isotopes disintegrate
seriation
Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume
site survey
The process of discovering archaeological sites
stratigraphy
A site's physical structure produced by the deposition of geological and/or cultural sediments into layers, or strata.
stratum
Many thick, dead flattened cell layers, dead cells filled with keratin,protect against abrasions and penetration.
taphonomy
the study of what happens to the remains of an animal from the time of death to the time of discovery
thermoluminescence
A method of dating burnt flint by measuring electrons in it from 50,000-300,000 years ago, or of burnt pottery from the last 10,000 years.
Acheulian
Tool culture of Homo erectus and archaic H. sapiens. Pear-shaped hand axes.
australopiths
Humans that existed between 2 and 4 million years ago. were bipedal; human like hands and teeth; brain 1/3 of today's humans
bipedal locomotion
Walking on two feet. Walking on two legs is the single most distinctive feature of the hominins.
habitual bipedalism
Bipedal locomotion as the form of locomotion shown by hominins most of the time.
hard hammer percussion
a hammerstone is used to remove flakes from a core resulting in the removal of relatively large thick flakes
honing complex
Old World monkeys and apes, the lower jaw has a diastema to accommodate the very large upper canines.
large-bodied hominoids
Those hominoids including the great apes (orangutans, chimpanzees, gorillas) and hominins, as well as all ancestral forms back to the time of divergence from small-bodied hominoids (i.e., the gibbon lineage).
mosaic evolution
A pattern of evolution in which the rate of evolution in one functional system varies from that in other systems. For example, in hominin evolution, the dental system, locomotor system, and neurological system (especially the brain) all evolved at markedl
obligate bipedalism
Bipedalism as the only form of hominin terrestrial locomotion. Since major anatomical changes in the spine, pelvis, and lower limb are required for bipedal locomotion, once hominins adapted this mode of locomotion, other forms of locomotion on the ground
Plio-Pleistocene
Pertaining to the Pliocene and first half of the Pleistocene, a time range of 5-1 mya. For this time period, numerous fossil hominins have been found in Africa.
postcranial
Referring to all or part of the skeleton not including the skull. The term originates from the fact that in quadrupeds, the body is in back of the head; the term literally means "behind the head.
sagittal crest
ridge of bone running lengthwise down the center of the cranium where muscles used for mastication attach
hunter-gatherers
People who hunt animals and gather wild plants, seeds, fruits, and nuts to survive
nuchal torus
A projection of bone in the back of the cranium where neck muscles attach. These muscles hold up the head.
Pleistocene
1.8 million years ago to 10,000 ya
Chatelperronian
an upper paleolithic tool industry that has been found in association with later neandertals
composite tool
Minimally, a tool made of several pieces. For example, a prehistoric knife typically included a handle or shaft, a chipped stone blade, and binding materials such as glue or sinew to hold the blade firmly in place.
discoid technique
A prepared-core technique in which flakes are struck toward the center of the stone core; greater efficiency of raw material use than Levallois
flexed
The position of the body in a bent orientation, with arms and legs drawn up to the chest.
glaciations
a period of global cooling during which continental ice sheets and mountain glaciers expand
interglacials
Climatic intervals when continental ice sheets are retreating, eventually becoming much reduced in size. Interglacials in northern latitudes are associated with warmer temperatures, while in southern latitudes the climate becomes wetter.
Late Pleistocene
The portion of the Pleistocene epoch beginning 125,000 ya and ending approximately 10,000 ya
Middle Paleolithic
Cultural period that began about 200,000 ya and ended around 30,000-40,000 years ago. Roughly the same period in sub-Saharan Africa is called Middle Stone Age
Middle Pleistocene
780,000 ya and ending 125,000 ya.
Mousterian
A culture from the Middle Paleolithic ("Middle Old Stone Age") period that appeared throughout Europe after 250,000 and before 30,000 years ago. Mousterian artifacts are frequently associated with Neanderthal human remains.
prepared-core method
Pertaining to stone cores that a toolmaker shapes into a preplanned form before striking flakes from it; enables predicable flake shape and thickness; can be efficient in the use of raw materials.
Upper Paleolithic
A cultural period usually associated with modern humans, but also found with some Neandertals, and distinguished by technological innovation in various stone tool industries. Best known from western Europe, similar industries are also known from central a
The term 'hominin' refers to
modern humans and now extinct bipedal relatives
Protohominis lived approximately
5 - 7 mya
The overall study of fossil hominins is known as
paleoanthropology
Which of the following types of evidence of hominin behavior are most likely available for study?
material culture
The earliest artifact sites are from the Gona and Bouri areas, dating to
2.6 mya
Which one of the following is NOT one of the primary goals of archaeology?
determine the "when" and "where" of past cultures
Which of the following is a justification for conducting archaeological excavation?
data is needed about specific important questions or sites are threatened with destruction
The spatial and temporal relationships between artifacts and features is known as:
context
The archaeological record is typically contained within locations of past human activity, called
sites
Examples of relative dating includes:
determining whether an object is older, younger, or the same age as another
Which of the following is NOT an example of a radiometric dating technique?
paleomagnetism
If you were digging a hominin site that contains geological layers that resulted from volcanic activity, what dating technique would you most likely use?
potassium-argon
Radiometric dating techniques are based on what principle?
regular, known rate of isotopic decay
What is greatest contribution of Olduvai research?
establishment of a well documented sequence of hominin occupation
The home-based forager model of hominin behavior proposed that Olduvai Gorge reflected what behavior?
use as a multi-purpose campsite
The terms Sivapithecus, Proconsul, and Dryopithecus applied to different groups of Miocene hominoids, refer to a distinction made at what taxonomic level?
genus
When did the initial hominid divergence from the African hominoids most likely occur?
during the late Miocene
Hominins have been variably defined as having which of the following?
a large brain, toolmaking abilities, adaptations for bipedalism
The earliest hominin traces
are primarily dental and cranial pieces
The term hominin refers to a distinction made at what taxonomic level?
Tribe
Adaptive advantages of bipedalism include the following except
further refinements to capabilities used for swimming
Anatomical changes in hominins indicative of habitual bipedal locomotion include
shortening and broadening of the pelvis
Fossil evidence for early hominin foot structure
has come from South and East African sites
What have researchers concluded from the fossil remains of hominin feet from South Africa?
They indicate many forms of hominins spent considerable time in trees.
The current evidence indicates that hominins possessed all the major structural changes necessary for bipedalism by
4 million years ago
What is paleoanthropology?
It is defined as the study of early humans.
Which of the following methods are not used to identify hominin fossil sites?
water reside analysis
Dating methods indicating that something is older or more recent than something else
are called relative dating methods
What is the dating method that uses the principle that undisturbed underlying geologic deposits are older than overlying geologic deposits?
stratigraphic dating
Thermoluminescence can be used on which of the following?
Heated materials such as burned flint
Relative dating techniques
include biostratigraphy
Thermoluminescence dates
burned flint tools
When compared to large-bodied earlier Homo specimens, Homo erectus relative brain size is
about the same
Homo erectus appeared in East Africa between ________ million years ago.
2.0 and 1.8
There is a very late surviving H. erectus group in Java that apparently managed to survive there until less than ________ years ago.
100,000
Until recently, H. erectus sites outside of Africa all have shown dates later than the earliest finds of species in Africa. This has led paleoanthropologists to assume that
the hominins who migrated to Asia and Europe descended from earlier African ancestors
The Dmanisi site is notable for which of the following
One complete cranium is of an older adult with jawbones that show advance bone loss
The cranial remains from Dmanisi are characteristic of all of the following except
bear similarities to australopithecus specimens
The first Chinese H. erectus discoveries were the result of the focus on locating
Dragon bones" used as medicine and aphrodisiacs
Thus far, what do the postcranial remains of the Dmanisi hominins indicate?
The first hominins to leave Africa were possibly a very early form of H. erectus.
Hominin sites in the European regions of Spain and Italy evidence fossil material that is contemporaneous with Homo erectus. They include all of the following except
Hexian County
While many theorists stayed home and debated the merits of natural selection and the likely course of human evolution, this young Dutch anatomist enlisted in the Dutch East Indian Army, having decided to go find evidence of it.
Eugene Dubois
By far the largest collection of Homo erectus remains have been found at
Zhoukoudian
The Homo erectus remains from Africa are dated to ________ years ago.
1.7-1 million
The Nariokotome Homo erectus specimen
would have reached an adult height of around 6 feet
The most complete Homo erectus skeleton found to date is the Nariokotome specimen, which includes
facial bones, pelvis, most of the limb bones, ribs and vertebrae
The term Homo ergaster
was suggested to be used to refer to African Homo erectus specimens
Bifacially flaked tools characterize the ________ stone tool industry.
Acheulian
Evidence for animal butchering is
widespread in Homo erectus sites
Paleoanthropologists consider ________ to be the immediate predecessors to modern Homo sapiens.
...
The Middle Pleistocene began about ________ years ago and ended ________ years ago.
...
The ________ epoch has been called the "Ice Age.
...
During glacial periods, the climate in Africa became
...
Dating too about 850,000 years ago, human fossils from Gran Dolina are placed within Homo
...
Kabwe, Bodo, Florisbad, Elandsfontein and Laetoli are sites that evidence premodern Homo sapiens and are located in
...
Evidence of Premodern Homo sapiens crania that show possible evidence of cannibalism in the form of cut marks is represented at
...
Dated to approximately 500,000-400,000 years ago, the site of ________ has yielded a sample of 4,000 fossil fragments representing about twenty-eight premodern Homo sapiens individuals, more than 80% of all Middle Pleistocene hominin remains in the world.
...
African sites evidencing Neandertal fossils include
...
Upper Pleistocene premodern Homo sapiens that have their evolutionary roots in western Europe include
...
Neandertal brain size
...
Some Neandertal physical characteristics may have arisen as adaptations to a ________ environment.
...
The La Chapelle-aux-Saints skeleton is not a typical Neandertal
...
Upper Paleolithic stone tools were found at the French Neandertal site of St. C�saire, dated to ________ years ago.
...
Shanidar cave is extraordinary in that an individual in the burial
...