Order Primate
first," group of mammals that includes prosimians, monkeys and apes
Family Hominidae
Humans, chimps, bonobos, gorillas taxonomic family
Subfamily Homininae
Humans separated from apes into this subfamily, not supported from DNA as Humans share about 99% of our DNA with chimps
Anthropology
Study of human culture and evolutionary aspects of human biology; cultural, linguistic, archaeology, physical/biological subfields
Biological Anthropology
Study of human biology within an evolutionary framework
Paleoanthropology
Study of human evolution in particular
Anthropometry
Measurement of human bodies
Primatology
Study of non-human primates
Osteology
Study of skeletons
Paleopathology
Study of disease and injury in skeleton
Forensic Anthropology
Analysis and identification of human remains in a legal context
Hypothesis
Provisional explanation designed specifically to be tested
Theory
An explanation supported by repeated testing
Doctrine
An opinion or belief formally handed down as indisputable (dogma)
Science and Rationalism
1 - There is a real and knowable universe, 2 - The universe operates according to certain understandable rules or laws, 3 - These laws don't change over time and space, 4 - Observation, experimentation and research can uncover these laws
Anaximander
Humans originate from animals of some sort
Aristotle
Continual progression from simple to higher life forms, ape=transition from low to human
Copernicus
1514, challenged idea that earth was universe center
Galileo
1610, supported idea that universe was a place of motion rather than fixity
Fixity of Species
Notion that species, once created, can never change, no adaptations
Grand Design
World is a result of God's design, earth considered very young
Vesalius
1543, anatomist challenged the traditional dogma of following Galen and Aristotle; comparative anatomy showed humans were very similar to other animals
Natural Theology
Rational search for God's divine design
William Paley
Body as a machine
Neils Stenson
1666, demonstrated that fossils were actually parts of once-living creatures, suggested bones and teeth might actually turn to stone over time, also suggested rocks were formed in layers deposited on top of each other over time
John Ray
1686, defined concept of species as groups of animals that couldn't interbreed with other animals, noted that some species are more similar to each other than to different species, he grouped these species together into the Genus
Carolus Linneaeus
1758, tried to classify all life on earth to reflect God's design, grouped together similar animals into hierarchical categories, believed species were fixed and immutable, created binomial system (Genus species)
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
1774, first non-biblical history of earth, the "internal mould" of species changed in response to new environments, first to suggest species weren't fixed entities, thought earth was more than 70,000 years old
Thomas Malthus, Rev.
1798, argued against the idea of continued improvement in humanity, looked at humans as populations that behaved according to natural laws, population size increases but food supply doesn't so don't help the poor as they will have more children
James Hutton
1794, argued that the Earth was transformed by imperceptibly slow processes, not continual global catastrophes, held that the Earth is vastly old, recognized the "rock cycle" and foreshadowed Darwin's natural selection
Erasmus Darwin
1803, Charles Darwin's grandfather, suggested life arose in the seas and that all species shared a common ancestry
Jean Baptiste Lamarck
1801, proposed a theory of evolution - inheritance of acquired characteristics, emphasized the importance of the relation between organism and environment, changing usage of organs would cause "nervous fluid" to flow there and alter the nature of the orga
Georges Curvier
1820, fossils found in Europe unlike anything alive today, introduced concept of extinction, thought Earth periodically underwent sudden changes that would wipe out some species (catastrophism), still held the fixity of species
William Smith
1831, recognized that fossils were organized in distinctive sequences in rocks, produced first geological map of England, allowed Earth to be sorted into stages - biostratigraphy
Charles Lyell
1830, principle of uniformitarianism - processes occurring today also occurred in the past, argued against catastrophism, wanted to make geology a true science by divorcing it from a literal interpretation of the bible - Noah's flood, required a very old
Gregor Mendel
1856, principles of inheritance, parental traits not blended together but rather only dominant traits were visible, mathematically ahead of his time - most naturalists didnt recognize his genius
Charles Darwin
1859, recognized the mechanism by which evolution operated, strongly influenced by Malthus and Lyell, began to form his ideas on the H.M.S. Beagle (1831-36), "On the Origin of Species" is one of the most influential books in history, has never gone out of
Alfred Russell Wallace
1858, formulated a mechanism of evolution very similar to Darwin's, he recorded the geographical distribution of species and noted how it was influenced by environment - biogeography, recognized 6 biogeographical regions that are still accepted today
Thomas Henry Huxley
1864, championed Darwin's theory of evolutionary change, known as "Darwin's Bulldog," never fully supported natural selection, but strong proponent of evolution, supported idea of saltation instead - short, rapid bursts of change rather than Darwin's slow
Ernst Haeckel
1874, "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny," embryos pass through each evolutionary stage that the lineage has passed through (amoeba > sea-squirt > fish > mammal), fraudulent images made to look identical - they do look somewhat similar in reality
Prokaryotic cells
Single-celled organisms lacking a nucleus
Eukaryotic cells
Structurally complex cells with a nucleus
Mitochondria
Organelles that produce energy, started as parasites
Ribosomes
Organelles that manufacture proteins
Cytoplasm
Area between nucleus and cell wall where the organelles are located
Somatic cells
Cells, components of body tissues
Gametes
Sex cells, ova and sperm
Zygote
The union between sperm and ovum, "fertilized cell
DNA Molecule
Composed of two complementary nucleotide chains
Nucleotides
Composed of sugar molecule, phosphate unit, nitrogenous base (AGCT)
DNA Replication
Enzymes break the bonds between nucleotide chains, free nucleotides within the nucleus pair with complementary nucleotide, forms two new strands of DNA
Protein Synthesis
Major structural components of tissue (example - liver, collagen, hormones)
Enzyme
Proteins serving as catalysts, initiating chemical reactions in the body
Amino Acids
Building blocks of protein, proteins differ according to the number of amino acids and the sequence in which they are arranged, 20 known
Messenger RNA
Copies messages from the DNA when part of the DNA (a gene) "unzips," mRNA carries the genetic message from the cell nucleus to a ribosome in the cytosol
Codons
Triplets of mRNA bases that correspond to specific amino acids
Transfer RNA
Molecules that bind to one specific amino acid, tRNAs arrive at the ribosome carrying their specific amino acids, the base triplets on the tRNA match up with the codons on the RNA
DNA Code
Code is triplet - each amino acid is specified by three mRNA bases (codon), by which in turn is coded for by three DNA bases (triplet), code is continuous, redundant - multiple triplets/codons specify the same amino acid, universal - same DNA and amino ac
Genes
A chromosomal segment responsible for making a functional product, we have 21,000 genes but produce 90,000 proteins
Mutation
Occurs when the sequence of bases in a gene is altered
Exons
DNA segments transcribed into mRNA that code for specific amino acids, genes consist of these
Introns
DNA sequences not expressed during protein synthesis, genes consist of these
Junk DNA
Only 2% of human DNA codes for protein synthesis
Microsatellites
non-coding segments repeated over and over
Telomeres
Structures at the ends of chromosomes that influence cellular aging and regulation of cell cycles
Transposable Elements
DNA sequences that change positions in the genome
Regulatory Genes
Control the activities of other genes
Homeobox Genes
A DNA sequence found within genes that are involved in the regulation of patterns of anatomical development; example are the Hox genes that control the development of a basic body plan during embryological development
Universal Genetic Code
The DNA code of all life on earth is composed of the same molecules, using the same kind of instructions, the universality of genetic code implies a common ancestry of all life on the planet, organisms differ only in the exact arrangement of the DNA
Chromosome Structure
A chromosome is composed of a DNA molecule and associated proteins, during normal cell functions chromosomes exist as single stranded structures - chromatin, during cell division, chromosomes are joined together at the centromere
Homologous
Chromosome pairs that carry genetic information influencing the same traits, not genetically identical (alleles)
Autosomes
Chromosomes that govern all physical characteristics except sex determination
Sex Chromosome
Chromosomes that determine sex, X and Y, Mammal female (XX), male (XY)
Mendelian Inheritance
Gregor Mendel (1822-84), laid down the basic principles of heredity, crossed different strains of purebred plants and studies their progeny, his work illustrated the basic rules of inheritance
Blending
Darwin considered this instead of inheritance, certain particles of every part of the parents' bodies melded together into an embryo
Genotype
Genetic makeup of an organism
Phenotype
Physical makeup of an organism
Principles of Segregation
Traits controlled by pairs of units, one from each parent, genes occur in pairs because chromosomes come in pairs, during meiosis members of each gene pair separate so each gamete contains one member of a pair, during fertilization the full number of chro
Principle of Dominance and Recessiveness
Traits are controlled by 2 alleles at one genetic locus; two copies of an allele are homozygous, two different copies are heterozygous, traits expressed in the heterozygous state are dominant, not expressed are recessive
Principles of Independent Assortment
Traits aren't necessarily inherited together (independently assorted), genes for different traits are often located on different chromosomes, sometimes different traits are coded on the same chromosomes
Mendelian Inheritance in Humans
Over 21,000 traits known to inherit according to mendelian principles, Human ABO blood system is an example
Inherited Genetic Disorders
Some can be inherited as dominant or recessive traits
Sex-linked traits
Any allele on the X chromosomes will be expressed in males because males only have one X (XY)
Hemizygous
Having only one member of a pair of alleles
Polygenic Inheritance
Continuous traits governed by alleles at more than one genetic locus, account for most visible human variation, have often served as a basis for racial classification - skin color as a common example
Pleiotropy
Single gene influences more than one phenotype expression, probably rule rather than the exception
Natural Selection
Darwin didn't invent evolution, recognized the mechanism by which evolution operated
Adaptation
A series of beneficial adjustments to an environment
Evolution
Descent with modification, occurs when genetic variation in the gene pool of a population change in frequency, not survival of the fittest, but rather the deletion of the unfit
Stabilizing Selection
Acts to maintain the norm of a population, leading to evolutionary stasis, represents a decrease in genetic diversity, example of human birth weight
Directional Selection
Selection that leads to adaptive changes favoring a particular allele, the advantageous allele increases in relative frequency, example of immunity to a disease
Disruptive Selection
Individuals at two extremes are adaptively favored, individuals at the extremes produce more offspring than "normal" animals
Reproductive Success
Having more offspring is not necessarily the goal, having more offspring live to produce their own offspring means success
Sexual Selection
Several types of animals possess characteristics that appear to be maladaptive, selection through male to male competition or female choice
Mutation
A molecular alteration in genetic material - new alleles, mutation is the only source of novel genetic material (new variation), ultimate source of random mutations are ultraviolet rays from the sun, more recently radioactivity and chemical toxicity
Gene Flow
the transfer of genes from one population to another, results from the migration of members of one population to territories of another, ancient humans were a highly mobile species, with a distinct propensity towards gene flow
Genetic Drift
Evolutionary changes produced by random factors
Founder Effect
A type of genetic drift in which allele frequencies are altered in small populations that are taken from or are remains of larger populations
Recombination
Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis, paired chromosomes exchange DNA segments
Homologies
Structures showed by two different organisms due to shared ancestry, pass through similar stages during embryonic development
Analogies
Structures that are superficially similar due to similar function
Homoplasy
Evolution of similar characters in two species that aren't found in the ancestor of those species
Microevolution
Small scale genetic changes over a few generations
Macroevolution
Large scale changes in species over long periods of time
Anagenesis
Slow, gradual accumulation of genetic differences
Cladogenesis
Branching of a lineage into two or more daughter species
Punctuated Equilibrium
Evolutionary change proceeds through long periods of stasis punctuated by rapid periods of change
Plate Tectonics
Alfred Wegener (1915), recognized that the continents could fit together like a puzzle, also noted that identical fossils, animals and plants were discovered on opposite continents, proposed that the continents had once been connected, didn't know mechani
Milankovitch Cycles
Fluctuation in the Earth's orbit around the sun
Orbital Eccentricity
Changes from circular to elliptical orbits
Orbital Obliquity
Tilt of the earth axis varies between 21.1 and 24.5 degrees
Orbital Precession
Axial precession - the Earth's axis wobbles, the North Pole describes a circle every 26,000 years
Elliptical Precession
Equinoxes and solstices shift around earth's orbit
Precambrian
Oldest known rocks solidified about 4.2 bya, earliest evidence of bacteria and algae 3.5 mya, prokaryotes, 1.9 mya the first eukaryotes appear
Cambrian Explosion
600 ma, in the space of about 30 million years all major body plans developed
Paleozoic
First land plants, terrestrial insects, vertebrates appear (560 ma), amphibians move onto land, still need to breathe and reproduce, reptiles later move onto land by developing amniotic egg (internal fertilization)
Mesozoic
First egg laying mammals 200 ma, placental mammals 125 ma (maybe 160 ma)
Monotremes
lay eggs but possess mammary glands
Marsupials
Viviparous, immature offspring carried in pouch
Eutherian
Placental mammals
Mammal Evolution
Fewer offspring, most born live, mothers nurse young, provide protection prolonged immaturity and play behavior, greater information processing than reptiles, dietary difference and heredont teeth, endothermy, social groups
Primates
Approximately 230 species of primates, includes Prosimians, monkeys (anthropoids), apes (hominoids), primates are generalized and retain primitive traits
Limbs and Locomotion
Tendency toward erect posture, flexible, generalized limb structure, most primates are quadrupedal - using all nine limbs in their locomotion, they can be arboreal and/or terrestrial quadrupeds
Vertical Clinging and Leaping
Grasping tree trunks and jumping from tree to tree
Brachiation
Arm swinging
Knuckle-walking
Shared by chimpanzees and gorilla
Quadrumanualism
Exclusive to orangutans - using all four limbs interchangeably
Diurnal
Active in the daytime
Nocturnal
Active at night
Binocular Vision
Eyes positioned toward the front of the space
Stereoscopic Vision
Visual images are superimposed on one another, 3D depth perception
Primate Maturation
Longer gestation, fewer offspring, delayed maturation, longer lifespan, greater dependence on flexible and learned behavior, tendency to live in social groups, males permanently associated, tendency for diurnal activity patterns
Primate Habitats
Most live in tropical/semi-tropical areas of the new and old worlds, most are arboreal, living in forest and woodland habitats
Strepsirrhines
Lemurs, Lorises and Galagos, reliance on olfaction, diurnal and nocturnal species, eat a wide variety of foods like leaves, fruit, bark, shoots, some specialize in insects, dental specialization called the "dental comb
Haplorhines
Tarsiers, monkeys, apes, humans, larger brain and body size, reduced reliance on the sense of smell, greater degree of color vision, bony plate at the back of the eye socket, longer gestation and maturation periods, fused mandible, generalized dentition (
Tarsiers
Small, nocturnal primates from southeast asia, eat insects and small vertebrates which they catch by leaping from branches, basic social patterns appears to be a family unit consisting of a mated pair and their offspring
New World Monkeys
Platyrrhini - almost exclusively arboreal, found in southern mexico and central and south america, two families callitrichidae and cebidae
Old World Monkeys
Catarrhini - Habitats range from tropical forests to semiarid desert to snow covered areas in Japan and China, characteristics - most quadrupedal and arboreal, all belong to Cercopithecidae family - Cercopithecines (omnivorous), colobines (leaf eaters)
Hominoids
Apes and humans, characteristics distinguishing hominoids from monkeys - larger body size, absence of tail, shortened trunk, arms longer than legs, complex brain, enhanced cognitive abilities, increased period of infant development and dependency
Gibbons and Siamangs
Tropical areas of Southeast asia, diet is largely fruit with leaves, flowers and insects, brachiation, basic social unit is a monogamous pair and their offspring
Orangutans
Found in heavily forested areas of Borneo and Sumatra, almost completely arboreal, quadrumanual, solitary and frugivorous, sexually dimorphic
Gorillas
Confined to forested regions of central africa, primarily terrestrial, knuckle-walking, groups consisting of one large silverback male, a few adult females and their sub adult offspring
Chimpanzees
Equatorial Africa, locomotion includes knuckle walking on the ground and brachiation in trees, eat a variety of plant and animal foods, large communities of as many as 100 individuals (violent)
Bonobos
Only found in an area south of the Zaire river, exploit the same food as chimps, male-female bonds constitute the societal core , peaceful existence, sexuality including frequent copulations throughout females' estrous cycle, "sword fighting" ritual
Ecology
The relationships between organisms and all aspects of their environment
Sympatic Defense
Two or more species whose habitats partly or largely overlap
Communication
An act that conveys information, communication is universal among animals
Autonomic
Physiological responses not under voluntary control
Displays
Repetitous behavior that communicates emotional states
Ritualized Behaviours
Behaviors removed from their original context and sometimes exaggerated to convey information
Language Capabilities
Language distinguishes humans from the rest of the animal kingdom, non-human primates only have a closed system of language, humans use open or symbolic language (arbitrary)
Kinesics
System of analyzing posture, facial expressions and body motions that convey messages (body language), facial gestures that are hard to fake
FoxP2
Gene regulates other genes that control the development of language production in humans, foxp2 proteins differ from chimps and gorillas versions by two amino acid substitutions
Home range
areas exploited by an animal or social group, usually given for one year or for entire lifetime of an animal.
Sympatric Defense
two or more species where habitats partly or largely overlap.
Autonomic
physiological responses not under voluntary control.
Display
repetitious behaviors that communicate emotional states.
Ritualized Behaviors
removed from their original context and sometimes exaggerated to convey information.
Prosocial Behavior
benefits others without reward for the performer.
Altruistic Behaviors
benefit another while involving some risk or cost to the performer (military, police, etc)
Kin
selection- altruistic acts more likely to e performed for relative that shares genes.
Reciprocal Altruism
helps another individual today and hope they return the favor.
Kinesics
system of analyzing postures, facial expressions, and body motions. Humans use open or symbolic
Anthropocentris
viewing of non-human phenomena in terms of human experience, capabilities, and emotions.