what does extreme heat do to bone
calcined bone=extremely fragile
ante mortem
before death, evidence of healing
peri-mortem
around time of death, clean, sharp edges, no callus
post mortem
after death, more irregular, color difference (broken area will be lighter in color)
What must primatologists take into consideration when studying monkeys/apes/etc?
the long term interest of the primate (The 3 R's- Replace, reduce, refine)
What must human biologists take into consideration when researching?
they must have voluntary, informed consent
IRB
institutional review board, Autonomy, Beneficence, and Justice
Who owns the past?
#NAME?
NAGPRA
Native American Graves Protection and Reparation Act
Hominids
humans and apes
Hominins (tribe Hominini)
Humans and their close ancestors
How many years ago did the Chimp ancestral line and the human ancestral line split?
~8-10 mya
Mosaic evolution
different hominid features evolved at different times, that is why early hominins show a mixture of shared ancestral and shared derived traits
derived traits
newly-evolved features
5 defining hominin traits and when they evolved
1)Bipedalism ~6mya
2)Nonhoning chewing ~5.5 mya
3)Material culture and tools ~2.5 mya
4)Spoken language ~2.5 mya
5) Cooperative hunting ~1 mya
Non-honing chewing complex
no diastema, a small canine, and no honing
Key skeletal features of bipedalism (13)
1)foramen magnum is located inferiorly
2)s-shaped vertebral column
3)human vertebrae get larger from cervical to lumbar
4)Humans have fairly small spinous processes
5)shorter, wider pelvis
6)obstetric dilemma
7)larger hip joints
8)knees angled inward(valgus knees)
9)wider foot surface, smaller toes
10) double arched feet to reduce risk of fatigue fractures
11)adducted hallux
12)long legs relative to trunk and arms
13)hand phalanges less curved
double-arched foot
transverse arch-running medial to lateral
longitudinal arch- running length of foot
Advantages to bipedalism
#NAME?
Disadvantages to bipedalism
#NAME?
negative effects linked to bipedalism
#NAME?
4 Hypotheses for the origins of bipedalism
#NAME?
Hunting Hypothesis
Darwin, natural selection favored bipedalism because hominins that had their hands free were able to carry tools and weapons for hunting
Problem with Hunting Hypothesis
Tool use, Increased brain size, and hunting all appeared much later than bipedalism
Patchy Forest Hypothesis
#NAME?
Thermoregulation Hypothesis
#NAME?
Problem with Thermoregulation Hypothesis
#NAME?
Male Provisioning Hypothesis
#NAME?
Problems with Male Provisioning Hypothesis
#NAME?
splitters
New species when there is anatomical variation
lumpers
combine morphologically similar variants into single species
Pre-Australopithecines (~7.0-6.0 mya)
1)Sahelanthropus tchadensis
2)Orrorin tugenensis
3)Ardipithecus kadabba and Ar. ramidus
Where were Pre-Australopithecines found?
Africa
Pre-Australopithecines physical features:
#NAME?
Pre-Australopithecines form of locomotion?
#NAME?
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
7.0-6.0 mya
Orrorin tugenensis
6.0 mya
Ardipithecus kadabba
5.8-5.6 mya
perihoning
polishing on premolar 3
Ardipithecus ramidus
4.4 mya
Where did the earliest hominins evolve?
Forest/Woodland
Differences between pre-Australopithecines and Australopithecines?
1)Teeth
-Pre-Aus.=canine with modified honing/nonhoning
-Aus.= nonhoning
2)Bones
-Pre-Aus.=vestiges of ape-like arboreal traits
-Aus.=loss of arboreal traits
3)Brain
-Pre-Aus.= small ~350 cc
-Aus.=slight increase ~340-500cc
Two categories of Australopithecines
Gracile and Robust
Gracile Australopithecines
Au. anamensis
Au. afarensis
Au. platyops
Au. garhi
Robust Australopithecines
Au. africanus
Au. robustus
Au. sediba
Au. aethiopicus
Au. boisei
Which Australopithecines lead to humans and which was the terminal branch?
Gracile=lead to humans
Robust=terminal branch
Gracile v. Robust
#NAME?
Australopithecus anamensis
Africa, 4.2-3.9 mya, oldest and most primitive confirmed australopithecine, probable descendent of ardi
change in mouth/teeth due to eating less fibrous food
reduction in teeth and muscle attachments=humans have shorter, wider mandible (U shaped->V shaped(parabolic))
Australopithecus afarensis
3.6-3.0 mya, Lucy
Australopithecus platyops
3.5 mya
Australopithecus Garhi
2.5 mya
Who were the first toolmakers?
Australopithecines
Oldowan Tool Complex
Au. garhi, done by knapping
Knapping
hitting two stones against one another to break off sharp flakes
Two lineages of robust Australopithecines
South and East African
South African robust Australopithecines
1)Au. africanus
2)Au. robustus
3)Au. sediba
East African robust Australopithecines
1)Au. aethiopicus
2)Au. boisei
Au. africanus
3.0-2.0 mya
Australopithecus robustus
2.0-1.5 mya
Au. sediba
2.0-1.8 mya
Au. aethiopicus
2.5 mya
Au. boisei
2.3-1.2 mya
When did Robust Australopithecines go extinct?
~1 mya
What sets homo apart?
#NAME?
Homo Habilis
2.5-1.8 mya (same time as robust australopithecines)
Homo erectus
1.8-0.3 mya
Acheulian Complex
Homo erectus, much more complex than Oldowan
Who were the first hominin to leave Africa?
Homo erectus
In what order did Homo Erectus leave Africa?
Africa->Asia
Asia->Europe
Persistence Hunting
Homo erectus, bipeds have endurance so they can chase prey until they collapse from exhaustion
Neanderthals
DNA evidence suggests Neanderthals and humans interbred with each other after they had started diverging, Neanderthals are a subspecies of human
Physical features of Neanderthals
Large nasal aperture, large infraorbital foramina, also have occipital buns, large cranial capacity
Is there evidence that Neanderthals took care of one another?
Yes possibly, remains found that were old and diseased and would have needed someone to help them live
Were Neanderthals primitive/dumb?
No, they actually had a larger cranial capacity than we have now, and they were depicted as hunched over and ape like because a reconstruction was based on remains with arthritis in the neck
Neanderthals had:
-hunting and complex tools
-spoken language
-symbolic behavior
-intentional burial of dead
-Ornamentation
-housing shelters
-& they mated with AMH
Mousterian tool complex
Neanderthals/Late Archaic Homo sapiens, Levallois technique, chipped away until they had a very sharp, strong shard of rock
Did late archaic Homo sapiens hunt?
Yes, used Mousterian spears and flake tools
What was the late archaic Homo sapiens diet like?
Meat heavy, big game hunting
Were Neanderthals violent amongst one another?
Debatable because of the Rodeo hypothesis
The Aurignacian
45,000-30,000 BP, associated with the first AMH, beads and jewelry, they had tailored clothing, cave art
The Gravettian
30,000-20,000 BP, carved figurines, more sedentary group (pit houses, hearths, and storage areas), burials with goods
The Solutrean
21,000-17,000 BP, extremely refined blade technology, domestication of the dog, Venus figurines
The Magdalenian
17,000-12,000 BP, large scale climate change, increased sedentism, increased food(fishing), spectacular cave paintings
Out of Africa Hypothesis of AMH migration(Population replacement model)
1-AMH evolve in Africa
2-Group of modern, heat-adapted AMH migrate into Asia and Europe
3-AMH replace earlier indigenous Archaic Homo sapiens populations already living in Asia and Europe
4-No significant interbreeding
5-Local Archaic groups go extinct
Problems with the Out-of-Africa Hypothesis
#NAME?
Multiregional continuity hypothesis
1-transition from Archaic Homo sapiens to AMH occurred regionally within Africa, Asia, and Europe
-no replacement
2-Transition happened at the same time on all three continents due to gene flow between populations
Problems with the multi regional continuity hypothesis
#NAME?
Assimilation hypothesis (partial replacement)
1-AMH evolve from archaic in Africa
2-Small group migrates to Asia and Europe
3-Once in Asia and Europe, extensive interbreeding occurred between modern humans and local archaic groups
4-Local archaic groups are assimilated into larger AMH groups
When did AMH first migrate into the Americas?
15,000 years BP, over the Bering land bridge from Siberia to Alaska, or by sea along deglaciated Pacific coast
Wild progenitors
Plant/animal ancestors of domesticated species
domestication syndrome
changes in seed/fruit size, dependence on humans, more juvenile traits in animals(neoteny)
How do anthropologists study the remains of plants from the Halocene?
charred remains and phytoliths
What caused the Agricultural Revolution?
#NAME?
Where and how did agriculture start?
started in 10 or 11 independent regions around the world through diffusion and migration
Good things about the Agricultural Revolution
creates more food, and more food can support more people
Bad things about the Agricultural Revolution
#NAME?
Bioarchaeology
reconstructing the past using human skeletal remains, used to better understand all aspects of a population
Forensic Anthropology
Recovering and identifying modern individuals
Field components of Bioarch
excavating site
Field components of Forensic Anthro
recovering/documenting remains
Lab Component for Bioarch and Forensic Anthro
#NAME?
survey
locating site of interest
excavating
removing soil layer by layer
Components of a biological profile
#NAME?
Why is the inventory portion of the biological profile important?
to determine the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI)
Two ways to measure stature
Anatomical: need all bones which contribute to height
Mathematical:use regression equation to estimate height from length of one bone
Fracture
macroscopic break in bone
What can the type and location of a fracture help us do?
figure out what type of trauma occurred/ what type of weapon was used
stress fractures
result from repeated or vigorous trauma to bone
i.e. runners fractures, crush fractures, spondylolysis
Blunt force trauma
slow" load application to bone over large surface area
i.e. strangulation, car crash, clubs/bats, falling from heights
Sharp force trauma
created by a tool with a pointed or beveled edge (small surface area)
Ballistic trauma
high speed, small point of contact, radiating and concentric fractures
entry hole of ballistic trauma
round, smooth shape or keyhole shape
exit hole of ballistic trauma
larger than entry, beveled edges
heat treatment
burned bone often cracked and warped