anthropology
study of humans in all times and places (holistic, comparative, fieldwork-based discipline)
theoretical linguistics
study of language from structural point of view, without much attention to cultural contexts of language use
linguistic anthropology
study of language from anthropological perspective
feature/componential analysis
method for revealing culturally important features by which speakers of a language distinguish different words in a semantic domain
frames
created by words
invoke metaphors, grouping ideas into commonly used phrases and influencing the way we experience things
linguistic relativity
idea that languages are different, are arbitrary systems, and that knowing one language does not allow you to predict how another language will categorize and name the world
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
concept of linguistic determinism (language affects ability to perceive, think, and talk about things)
allophone
variant form of a phoneme
member of a group of sounds that together form a singe phoneme
ex =
minimal pair
pair of words in which a difference in sound makes a difference in meaning
ex = bat, cat
paralanguage
(prosody) sounds that accompany speech bat are not directly part of language
ex = mhm, uh-oh, ugh
phone
a sound on a phonetic chart
phoneme
sound that functions to distinguish one world from another in a language
phonemic chart
chart that shows just the distinctive sounds of a language (phonemes)
phonemics
analysis of way sounds are arranged in languages
phonetic chart
chart that shows all sounds of a language
phonetics
identification and descriptions of language sounds
phonology
study of language sounds
affix
a morpheme that attaches to a base to form new words
ex =
allomorph
a variant form of a morpheme
base
morpheme to which an affix can be attached, serving as a foundation for building other words
root - a word, or morpheme, that serves as the underlying foundation for other words
stem - a word, or collection of morpheme,s that is derived from a root and to
bound morpheme
morpheme that must be attached to another morpheme
free morpheme
morpheme that can stand alone
morpheme
smallest unit of meaning in a language
morphology
analysis of words and how they are structured
substitution frame
grammatical frame into which you can place related words, useful for discovering relationships among groups of words or identifying categories of words in a language
tree diagram
grammatical frame into which you separate parts of an ambiguous sentence
syntax
analysis and description of the ways that words are arranged in phrases and sentences
ethnosemantics
(cognitive anthropology) approach in which vocabulary is analyzed to learn about systems of meaning and perception
Ferdinand de Saussure
applied descriptive grammar to study languages
(describing structure and patterning of languages on their own terms)
nature of linguistic sign -> arbitrariness
nature of linguistic sign
(Saussure) division between signifier and signified is the basis for idea that everything gains it meaning out of being in structural oppositional relations with other components
universal grammar
aspect of any human brain that allows acquisition of language
universal characteristics of languages - allows for creation of language theories
Hockett's design features of language
13 features
human language contain all
animal languages contain some
vocal-auditory channel
use of speaking and hearing as a key feature of languages, reflecting an ideology of orality
broadcast transmission & directional reception
sounds of human language are sent out in all directions but that listeners perceive those sounds as coming from a specific direction
rapid fading
(transitoriness) language signals don't last very long
interchangeability
speaker can send and receive the same signal
total feedback
speakers can hear/see themselves talk/sign and they can monitor what they say/sign as they say/sign it
specialization
language sounds are specialized for communication
semanticity
specific sound signals can be directly linked to specific meanings
arbitrariness
no necessary or causal connection between a signal and its meaning
discreteness
units used for communication can be separated into distinct units that cannot be mistaken for one another
displacement
can talk/sign about things that are not present
productivity
allows you to produce and comprehend entirely new utterances that you've never spoken or heard or seen before
traditional transmission
language is learned in social groups
duality of patterning
discrete units of language at one level (sound) can be combined to create different kinds of units at a different level (words)
ethnography of speaking
(ethnography of communication)
an ethnography that focuses on describing and analyzing the easy that people use language in real situations
community of practice
group of individuals who interact regularly, developing unique ways of doing things together
speech community
group of people who share one or more varieties of language and the rules for using those varieties in everyday communication
S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G
ethnography of communication:
Setting/Situation
Participants
Ends
Act sequences
Key
Instrumentalities
Norms
Generes
kinesics
study of body movements, facial expressions, and gestures
primes
(sign language) element of a sign corresponding to the phonological element of a spoken language (phonemes)
categorized by hand shape (dez), hand placement (tab), & hand movement (sig)
proxemics
study of how people perceive and use space
intimate, personal, social, public
sign language
language performed in three-dimensional space; not modeled on any spoken language
dez
phoneme or prime that describes hand shape and/or orientation
sig
phoneme or prime that describes hand movement
tab
phoneme or prime that describes hand placement
speech substitutes
system of communication in which sound signals substitute for spoken worlds or parts of words
drum languages & whistle languages where tone and pitch indicate different vowels or consonants
complexe gesture system
gestural system used instead of a spoken language in situations where speech is not possible
abjad
consonant with implied vowel
appropriate vowel determined from phonology
abugida
(alphasyllabary)
consonant with inherent vowel
[a] inherent
all other vowels marked
alphabetic writing
system in which graphic signs represent individual consonants and vowels
grapheme
smallest segment of speech that is represented in a writing system
lexeme
unit of writing surrounded by white space on a page
logographic writing
system in which graphic signs represent words or the ideas associated with words
logosyllabic writing
system in which signs can carry both semantic and phonetic information
phonetic sign
graphic mark that represents one or more of the sound of a language <ch>
semantic sign
graphic mark that represents a specific idea or meaning <@> <2>
rebus writing
system that uses a single picture to represent two or more words that sound the same (son & sun)
syllabic writing
system in which graphic signs represent individual syllables
bilingualism
ability to speak two language fluently
codeswitching
using more than one variety of language in a single situation or sometimes in different situations (half spanish/half english sentences)
cognates
sets of words in related languages that ca be shown to have descended from a common ancestral language; similar meanings & regular sound correspondences
diglossia
situation where two or more varieties of the same language are used by speakers in a different setting
glottochronology
science of measuring time change in a language
assumes fixed rate of retention
Grimm's Law
(First Germanic Sound Shift or the Rask's rule)
set of statements describing the inherited Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stop consonants as they developed in Proto-Germanic
three parts which form consecutive phases in the sense of a chain shift:
1) voiceless
language families
group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family
Membership is established by comparative linguistics
Daughter languages have a genetic/genealogical relationship
The evidence of linguistic relatio
language isolates
language that cannot be classified into any other language family
phonetic plausibility strategy
assumption that the choice among alternative reconstructions should be based on what seems plausible given what is known about the ways that languages change and the relationship between the sounds on a reconstructed phonetic chart
majority rules strategy
assumption that if there is no phonetically plausible reason to choose a particular sound for a reconstruction, then the choice should be based on whichever sound appears most frequently in the correspondence set
reconstructing proto-language
hypothetical, reconstructed, unattested language from which a number of known languages are believed to have descended by evolution, or slow modification of the proto-language into languages that form a language family
pidgin
language that has developed, through contact, from two unrelated languages
creole
complete language that has emerged out of a pidgin
grammar is elaborate
can be first language of community
marked forms
linguistic form that is considered to be non-neutral in a language and that is derived from a neutral or base form (waitress is from waiter)
unmarked forms
linguistic form that is considered to be a neutral or base fem in a language (waiter)
mock language
generally engaged in by non speakers of a specific language that utilities elements of that language to index negative stereotypes of its speakers: vehicle for unconscious reproduction of racist ideologies through language practice
discourse marker
words/phrases that have little content on their own but can have meaningful meanings in context with thing that is being reiterated or introduced
anthropology
study of humans in all times and places (holistic, comparative, fieldwork-based discipline)
theoretical linguistics
study of language from structural point of view, without much attention to cultural contexts of language use
linguistic anthropology
study of language from anthropological perspective
feature/componential analysis
method for revealing culturally important features by which speakers of a language distinguish different words in a semantic domain
frames
created by words
invoke metaphors, grouping ideas into commonly used phrases and influencing the way we experience things
linguistic relativity
idea that languages are different, are arbitrary systems, and that knowing one language does not allow you to predict how another language will categorize and name the world
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
concept of linguistic determinism (language affects ability to perceive, think, and talk about things)
allophone
variant form of a phoneme
member of a group of sounds that together form a singe phoneme
ex =
minimal pair
pair of words in which a difference in sound makes a difference in meaning
ex = bat, cat
paralanguage
(prosody) sounds that accompany speech bat are not directly part of language
ex = mhm, uh-oh, ugh
phone
a sound on a phonetic chart
phoneme
sound that functions to distinguish one world from another in a language
phonemic chart
chart that shows just the distinctive sounds of a language (phonemes)
phonemics
analysis of way sounds are arranged in languages
phonetic chart
chart that shows all sounds of a language
phonetics
identification and descriptions of language sounds
phonology
study of language sounds
affix
a morpheme that attaches to a base to form new words
ex =
allomorph
a variant form of a morpheme
base
morpheme to which an affix can be attached, serving as a foundation for building other words
root - a word, or morpheme, that serves as the underlying foundation for other words
stem - a word, or collection of morpheme,s that is derived from a root and to
bound morpheme
morpheme that must be attached to another morpheme
free morpheme
morpheme that can stand alone
morpheme
smallest unit of meaning in a language
morphology
analysis of words and how they are structured
substitution frame
grammatical frame into which you can place related words, useful for discovering relationships among groups of words or identifying categories of words in a language
tree diagram
grammatical frame into which you separate parts of an ambiguous sentence
syntax
analysis and description of the ways that words are arranged in phrases and sentences
ethnosemantics
(cognitive anthropology) approach in which vocabulary is analyzed to learn about systems of meaning and perception
Ferdinand de Saussure
applied descriptive grammar to study languages
(describing structure and patterning of languages on their own terms)
nature of linguistic sign -> arbitrariness
nature of linguistic sign
(Saussure) division between signifier and signified is the basis for idea that everything gains it meaning out of being in structural oppositional relations with other components
universal grammar
aspect of any human brain that allows acquisition of language
universal characteristics of languages - allows for creation of language theories
Hockett's design features of language
13 features
human language contain all
animal languages contain some
vocal-auditory channel
use of speaking and hearing as a key feature of languages, reflecting an ideology of orality
broadcast transmission & directional reception
sounds of human language are sent out in all directions but that listeners perceive those sounds as coming from a specific direction
rapid fading
(transitoriness) language signals don't last very long
interchangeability
speaker can send and receive the same signal
total feedback
speakers can hear/see themselves talk/sign and they can monitor what they say/sign as they say/sign it
specialization
language sounds are specialized for communication
semanticity
specific sound signals can be directly linked to specific meanings
arbitrariness
no necessary or causal connection between a signal and its meaning
discreteness
units used for communication can be separated into distinct units that cannot be mistaken for one another
displacement
can talk/sign about things that are not present
productivity
allows you to produce and comprehend entirely new utterances that you've never spoken or heard or seen before
traditional transmission
language is learned in social groups
duality of patterning
discrete units of language at one level (sound) can be combined to create different kinds of units at a different level (words)
ethnography of speaking
(ethnography of communication)
an ethnography that focuses on describing and analyzing the easy that people use language in real situations
community of practice
group of individuals who interact regularly, developing unique ways of doing things together
speech community
group of people who share one or more varieties of language and the rules for using those varieties in everyday communication
S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G
ethnography of communication:
Setting/Situation
Participants
Ends
Act sequences
Key
Instrumentalities
Norms
Generes
kinesics
study of body movements, facial expressions, and gestures
primes
(sign language) element of a sign corresponding to the phonological element of a spoken language (phonemes)
categorized by hand shape (dez), hand placement (tab), & hand movement (sig)
proxemics
study of how people perceive and use space
intimate, personal, social, public
sign language
language performed in three-dimensional space; not modeled on any spoken language
dez
phoneme or prime that describes hand shape and/or orientation
sig
phoneme or prime that describes hand movement
tab
phoneme or prime that describes hand placement
speech substitutes
system of communication in which sound signals substitute for spoken worlds or parts of words
drum languages & whistle languages where tone and pitch indicate different vowels or consonants
complexe gesture system
gestural system used instead of a spoken language in situations where speech is not possible
abjad
consonant with implied vowel
appropriate vowel determined from phonology
abugida
(alphasyllabary)
consonant with inherent vowel
[a] inherent
all other vowels marked
alphabetic writing
system in which graphic signs represent individual consonants and vowels
grapheme
smallest segment of speech that is represented in a writing system
lexeme
unit of writing surrounded by white space on a page
logographic writing
system in which graphic signs represent words or the ideas associated with words
logosyllabic writing
system in which signs can carry both semantic and phonetic information
phonetic sign
graphic mark that represents one or more of the sound of a language <ch>
semantic sign
graphic mark that represents a specific idea or meaning <@> <2>
rebus writing
system that uses a single picture to represent two or more words that sound the same (son & sun)
syllabic writing
system in which graphic signs represent individual syllables
bilingualism
ability to speak two language fluently
codeswitching
using more than one variety of language in a single situation or sometimes in different situations (half spanish/half english sentences)
cognates
sets of words in related languages that ca be shown to have descended from a common ancestral language; similar meanings & regular sound correspondences
diglossia
situation where two or more varieties of the same language are used by speakers in a different setting
glottochronology
science of measuring time change in a language
assumes fixed rate of retention
Grimm's Law
(First Germanic Sound Shift or the Rask's rule)
set of statements describing the inherited Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stop consonants as they developed in Proto-Germanic
three parts which form consecutive phases in the sense of a chain shift:
1) voiceless
language families
group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family
Membership is established by comparative linguistics
Daughter languages have a genetic/genealogical relationship
The evidence of linguistic relatio
language isolates
language that cannot be classified into any other language family
phonetic plausibility strategy
assumption that the choice among alternative reconstructions should be based on what seems plausible given what is known about the ways that languages change and the relationship between the sounds on a reconstructed phonetic chart
majority rules strategy
assumption that if there is no phonetically plausible reason to choose a particular sound for a reconstruction, then the choice should be based on whichever sound appears most frequently in the correspondence set
reconstructing proto-language
hypothetical, reconstructed, unattested language from which a number of known languages are believed to have descended by evolution, or slow modification of the proto-language into languages that form a language family
pidgin
language that has developed, through contact, from two unrelated languages
creole
complete language that has emerged out of a pidgin
grammar is elaborate
can be first language of community
marked forms
linguistic form that is considered to be non-neutral in a language and that is derived from a neutral or base form (waitress is from waiter)
unmarked forms
linguistic form that is considered to be a neutral or base fem in a language (waiter)
mock language
generally engaged in by non speakers of a specific language that utilities elements of that language to index negative stereotypes of its speakers: vehicle for unconscious reproduction of racist ideologies through language practice
discourse marker
words/phrases that have little content on their own but can have meaningful meanings in context with thing that is being reiterated or introduced