Sahelanthropos tchadensis
~6 - 7 million years ago
Central Africa (Northern Chad)
Cranial capacity: < 400 cc
Cranial and Dental Characteristics: Intermediate foramen magnum; small brain size; large brow ridges and cranial crests; small face
No postcranial fossils have been found
-
Orrorin tugenensis
~6 million years ago
Eastern Africa (Central Kenya)
Cranial capacity is unknown since no fossil material from the skull has been recovered
Cranial and Dental:Thick molar enamel; partial honing canine
Postcranial: Curved hand bones; long femoral neck and f
Ardipithecus ramidus
~4.4 million years ago
Middle Awash region of eastern Africa (Northern Ethiopia)
~300 - 350 cc
Cranial and Dental: Non-honing canine; reduced prognathism; forward (anterior) foramen magnum
Postcranial: Arboreal hands and feet (e.g., grasping big toe); mos
Australopithecus afarensis
~3.9 - 3.0 mya
Eastern Africa (e.g., Hadar and Laetoli sites)
~350 - 500 cc
Cranial and Dental: Small brain size; prognathic face; anteriorly placed foramen magnum; reduced
canine size yet still large; large molars with thick enamel; parallel-shaped denta
Australopithecus africanus
~3.0 - 2.4 million years ago
South Africa (e.g., Sterkfontein and Taung sites)
~450 - 500 cc
Cranial and Dental: Small brain size; small canines and incisors; less prognathic face
Postcranial Characteristics: Bipedal adaptations (e.g., curved lumbar regio
Paranthropus aethiopicus
~2.5 - 2.3 million years ago
East Africa (Ethiopia and Kenya)
~410 cc
Cranial and Dental: Small brain size; dish-shaped face; pronounced sagittal crest; flared zygomatic arches; extreme facial prognathism; very large molar teeth
Postcranial: Limited postc
Paranthropus robustus
~2.0 - 1.5 million years ago
South Africa
~530 cc
Cranial and Dental: Small brain size; pronounced sagittal crest; flared zygomatic arches; flat face; small incisors and canines
Postcranial: Long arms but bipedal feet; similar hands to later hominins
-Ada
Paranthropus boisei
~2.3 - 1.3 million years ago
East Africa (Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Kenya)
~410 - 530 cc
Cranial and Dental: Small brain size; pronounced sagittal crest; flared zygomatic arches; broad, dish-shaped face; very large molar teeth; parabolic dental arcade
Postc
Homo habilis
~2.0 - 1.6 million years ago
East and South Africa
~503 - 661 cc
Cranial and Dental: Encephalization (i.e., expanded brain size relative to body size); large incisors,
smaller molars; precision grip (i.e., able to grip objects forcefully with hands);
rela
Homo erectus
~ 1.8 million years ago - 143,000 years ago
Africa, Asia, and Central/Western Eurasia
~727 - 1251 cc
Cranial and Dental: Larger brain size; facial and dental reduction; low forehead; long and low braincase; pronounced supraorbital torus; pronounced occipi
Homo heidelbergensis
Transitional species between H. erectus and later
hominins (e.g., modern humans and Neandertals)
- Pronounced supraorbital torus, thick cranial bones, and no
chin, yet larger brains and reduced dentition
~600,000 - 200,000 years ago
Africa, Europe, and As
Homo neandertalensis
~130,000 - 30,000 years ago
Europe and Western Asia
~1200 - 1740 cc
Cranial and Dental: Large brain size; long skull ("football" shaped); prominent, arching brow ridges; midfacial prognathism; wide nasal aperture; retromolar gap; occipital bun; no chin
Po
(Anatomically modern) Homo sapiens
~200,000 years ago - Present
Geographical Location Throughout the world
Cranial Capacity (if available) ~1000 - 2000 cc
Cranial and Dental: Rounded skull with widest point toward top (on sides of parietals); canine fossa; tall, vertical forehead; small te
Hominin
Member of the subfamily
Homininae
? Includes humans and ancestors in our lineage since LCA with apes
? Has replaced the term "Hominid"
Defined by habitual bipedal adaptation
Earliest Hominins
? ~5-7 million years ago (End of Miocene)
? Evolved in Africa a
The Great Rift Valley
� Formed
~8 mya
� Stretches ~3,500 miles
� Over 2,000 feet deep
Foramen magnum
Big hole"; located on the inferior
region of the skull
A large opening at the base of the skull through which the brain connects to the spinal cord.
Nuchal
Posterior side of the neck
Back of neck
Supraorbital torus
Robust piece of bone above orbits
- Variability in prominence of brow ridge
Prognathism
Anterior projection of the midface
Projection of the jaw(s) beyond the projection of the forehead.
Orthognathic
Flat face
Having a non-projecting lower facial skeleton
Gracile
Slender bodied (versus robust)
(Cranial)Sagittal crest
Elevated bone along the midline of the cranium
- Attachment site for muscles
a bony ridge on the top of the skull to which the jaw muscles are attached.
Dental Arcade
Shape made by the rows of teeth in the upper jaw
Post-Orbital Constriction
Narrowing behind the orbits
Honing/Shearing Complex
Lower first premolar is sharpened from rubbing against the upper canine
- Leads to honing of surfaces on both teeth
Sectorial premolar: First lower premolar that exhibits compression due its role as a shearing surface
- Diastema: Space separating teeth of
Early Hominin Evolution
From late Miocene to early Pliocene
Laetoli (Tanzania) Footprints
-3.7-3.5 mya
-preserved through volcanic ash
footprints of two bipedal hominids preserved after a volcanic eruption and rainfall; 3.6mya
Australopithecus Diversification and Dispersal
Dispersal into South Africa ~3 mya
� Diversification into gracile and robust forms
� Gracile (South Africa only)
-Australopithecus africanus
� Robust (South Africa and East Africa)
-Paranthropus robustus, boisei, aethiopicus
Australopithecus
Thrived in Africa for over 2 million years
? Habitual bipeds
? Small-bodied (3.5 - 5 feet tall)
? Slightly larger brains (yet still small)
? Large molars with thick enamel (fibrous diet)
? Small canines and reduced honing complex
? Limited tools and cultu
Australopithecus anamensis
First Australopithecine
? Location: Northern Kenya
? Age: ~4.5 - 3.9 mya
? Ape-like features
? Slight canine/premolar honing complex
? Hominin-like features
? Bipedal modifications in lower limbs
? Molars with thick enamel
? Potential ancestors for later
Australopithecus afarensis
� Best-known early hominin
- Fossils of over 70 individuals from 6 different sites in E. Africa
- "Lucy": Represents nearly 40% of a complete skeleton; ~3.2 mya
� Age: ~3.9 - 3.0 mya
Cranial features: 350 - 500 cm3, Prognathic face, Anteriorly placed fora
Australopithecus bahrelghazali
Age: ~3.3 mya
� Location: N. central Africa in Chad
- Evidence for broader distribution of Australopithecines
� Mandible fragment only
� Highly debated hominin fossil
- Some experts suggest that the mandible belongs to A. afarensis
- Others suggest that i
determinant of genus Homo
Large brain relative to body size
- 40% increase in brain size among early Homo
compared to Australopithecines
- Also, smaller teeth and larger body size
Argument
Early Homo fossils typically classified
into two species (although debated)
� Homo habilis
� Homo rudolfensis
Oldowan Tools
Commonly regarded as first stone tools
in the archaeological record
� ~2.5 mya
� Involve simple modifications
� Potentially associated with increased meat eating
� Core: Possibly used for heavy-duty chopping,
butchering, and fracturing (e.g., bones)
� How
Homo rudolfensis
� Questionable classification
- Little postcranial material
- Homo habilis, Paranthropus?
� Age: ~2.4 - 1.6 mya
� Location: East Africa
� Encephalization: Brain size of ~700 cc
� Body Size: Within range of modern humans (~5 feet tall)
� Teeth: Smaller pre
Geographic distribution of H erectus
Homo erectus left Africa ~1.8 mya
� Dispersed to Asia and Eurasia (Central and Western)
� Global climate and habitat changes caused widespread movement
� Oldest fossils found in Dmanisi, Georgia
Distinguishing Cranial Traits H Erectus
� H. erectus has several unique features that distinguish it from early Homo and modern humans
- Less facial prognathism and larger brain than H. habilis
- Low forehead
- Long and low braincase
- Supraorbital torus
- Occipital/nuchal torus
� Pronounced ri
Turkana Boy
Most complete H. erectus skeleton
? Skull, pelvis, limb bones, ribs, and vertebrae
? Age: ~1.65 mya
? Location: W. Turkana, Kenya, E. Africa
? Brain size: ~900 cc
? ~8 years old, ~5'3" tall, and
~100 lbs.
? Similar stature to modern humans in equatorial A
Homo ergaster
African
� ~1.8 mya - 800 kya
� East & South Africa
� Separate species: Homo ergaster?
� Large brain (~750-900 cc)
� Lack of sagittal keel
� Less robust supraorbital torus
� Thinner cranial bones
Asian H Erectus
Asian
� ~1.8 mya - 143 kya
� West, East & SE Asia (Java, China)
� "Classic" H. erectus traits
� Large brain (~750-1250 cc)
� Strong sagittal keel
� Strong supraorbital torus
� Thick cranial bones
Acheulean Tool Industry
First appear in Africa ~1.6 - 1.4 mya
� Found mostly in Africa and western and central Eurasia; few locations in east Asia
� Bifacial Flaking: Flaked on both sides
� Strong and sharp hand axes
� Preconceived shape; required a "mental template"
� Carried f
Homo floresiensis
Discovered in 2004
� Age: ~100 - 12 kya
� Location: Flores, Indonesia
� Traits:
� Tiny body (~3 ft.) and brain (~400 cc)
� Skeletal similarities link H. floresiensis to H. erectus
� Large supraorbital torus and thick cranial bones
� Homo dentition
� Human
Pleistocene
Rapid climatic fluctuations occurred during the Middle Pleistocene (900 -130 kya) and Late Pleistocene (130 - 10 kya)
� Glaciations: Associated with colder temperatures and continental ice sheets covering northern continents
� Interglacials: Associated wi
Middle Pleistocene Hominins
Widely distributed: Africa,Asia, and Europe
� For the first time, Europe becomes more densely occupied (e.g., France, Spain, Germany, Hungary, Italy)
� Replacing, or coexisting, with earlier hominins (e.g., Homo erectus) in previously exploited habitats;
H heidelbergensis Cranial Features
Compared to H. erectus
� Supraorbital tori: Less prominent and separated (arching), yet still large
� Sagittal keel and occipital torus: Less pronounced
� Robusticity: Decreased, yet some thickness of cranial bones
� Brain size: Larger and vertical sides
Neandertal key sites
NeanderValley (Germany) -La Chapelle (France)
-Shanidar (Iraq) -Mt. Carmel sites (Israel)
Neandertal Cranial Features
Large brain size (mean: ~1520 cc)
? Long skull ("football" shaped)
? Prominent, arching brow ridges
? Mid-facial prognathism
? Wide nasal aperture
? Retromolar gap: Behind 3rd molar
? Occipital bun
? No chin
Neandertal Culture
Hunters
� Able to hunt large game (e.g., bison, deer) in
coordinated groups using long spears
� Evidence of healed injuries similar to rodeo
athletes
� Tooth wear from processing hides
� Provided assistance to injured individuals?
� Buried Dead
� Delibera
Neandertal Fate
Between 30 - 40,000 years ago, Neandertals were joined in
Europe by anatomically modern Homo sapiens
� Genetic evidence indicates occasional interbreeding
� Various hypotheses regarding the fate of Neandertals
� Examples: Parasites and pathogens, competit
Archaic vs Anatomically Modern Humans
Specific changes in the cranium distinguish "archaic" and
"modern" humans
Modern:
� Small brow ridge
� Flat face
� Flat, small cheekbones
� Small teeth
Archaic:
� Large brow
ridge
� Projecting
face
� Large, wide
cheekbones
� Larger teeth
Modern Human Anatomical Features
Average cranial capacity: ~1350 cc
� Small teeth
� Small face
� Canine fossa: Depression on the
surface of maxillary bone caused by
the socket of the canine tooth
� Well-defined chin
� Rounded skull with vertical
forehead
� Reduced supraorbital torus
Modern Human PostCranial Features
Compared to Neandertals
? Taller with a more slender body
? Thinner, less robust bones
? Longer limbs
? Longer trunk
? Cylindrical-shaped rib cage
Earliest Human Fossil Sites
Earliest fossils in Africa & Middle East (80,000-
190,000 ya), followed by Eurasia, Australia, and
finally the Americas
Upper Paleolithic Cultural Period
Material Culture among Modern Humans
? Started ~40 kya
? Advent of modern humanity
? New complexity in tools, hunting and foraging behavior, and symbolic expression
12,000 year old bone needle
Tools
Blade industry
? Made from stone flakes
? Flakes are twice as long as they are wide
? Wood, ivory, and bone carved to produce small tools (e.g., fishhooks, needles)
? Atlatl (i.e., spear-thrower)
? Able to better exploit surrounding environment (e.g., col
Art
Elaborate cave paintings (by ~40,000 years ago)
? Example: Lascaux Caves in France (date to ~17,000 years ago)
? Painted onto the walls using mineral pigments
Venus and Caves of Lascaux showing game
Evidence for Ritual
Evidence for intentional and ceremonial burial
? Grave goods
? Forms of postmortem modification (e.g., dismemberment, defleshing)
Multiregional Evolution/Continuity
Homo erectus left Africa and then evolved into modern humans in several different locations throughout the world
� All populations experienced similar patterns of change (i.e., continuity) due to gene flow and
common modes of adaptation
� Differences in g
Recent African Origin ("Out of Africa")
Anatomically modern humans evolved in Africa (~150 - 200,000 years ago) and then ventured out of Africa and globally dispersed
� RAO-Replace: Modern humans replaced archaic humans with minimal interbreeding
� RAO-Hybrid: Modern and archaic humans engaged
Multiple Dispersals and Assimilation
Most supported and accepted view now
- Multiple dispersals of genus Homo out of Africa
� "Out of Africa,Again and Again"
- Modern humans originated in Africa, ventured out, and interbred with populations of archaic Homo sapiens
� Evidence:
- Recent fossil
Understanding Human Variation
Recent origin (within last 200,000 years)
? Widespread geographic distribution
? Patterns of gene flow and isolation
? Exposure to diverse environmental factors
Humans are very similar in genotype
- Genetic make-up of an organism
� However, humans are sig
Describing Human Variation
Historically, the dominant paradigm has been race and racial classification
? Used in many different ways:
? Continental ancestry
? Nationality
? Religious identity
? Ethnic or cultural group
? Race is often used in a social sense and can have biological
Carolus Linnaeus (1758)
First systematic attempt at human classification
? Assigned varieties or "races"
? Homo sapiens afer (Africans)
? H.s. americanus (American Indians)
? H.s. asiaticus (Asians)
? H.s. europaeus (Europeans)
? H.s. ferus ("wild men") & H.s. montrous
? Most ea
Johann Blumenbach (1752-1840)
the socalled "father of physical anthropology"
? Defined the "classic" races in 1795
? Caucasian
? Mongolian
? Ethiopian
? American
? Malay
? Field moves towards focus on the skull, era of
measurement, and explicit hierarchy/ranking
Francis Galton
The philosophy of "race improvement";
idea that controlled selective breeding can improve the human species
? Eugenics movement in the Europe and the US
? Sterilization and anti-immigrant movement
? Nazi pseudoscience and idea of racial purity
Zygomatic arch
Cheek bone