Cultural Adaptation
a complex of ideas, activities, and technologies that enable people to survive and even thrive
ecosystem
living and nonliving things in an environment, together with their interactions
cultural evolution
cultural change over time, not all changes are postitive
progress
The notion that humans are moving forward to a better, more advanced stage in thier cultural development toward perfection.
convergent evolution (cultural)
process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similar cultures when adapting to similar environments
parallel evolution (culturally)
development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by peoples whose ancestral cultures were already somewhat alike.
culture area
a geographic region in which a number of different societies follow similar patterns of life
culture core
cultural features that are fundamental in the society's way of making its living - including food-producing techniques, knowledge of available resources, and the work arrangements involved in applying those techniques to the local environment
food foraging
hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plant foods
carrying capacity
largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support
Neolithic
(New Stone Age) when people changed from food gatherers to food producers; about 10,000 yrs. ago
Neolithic transition
Sometimes referred to as Neolithic revolution. the profound culture change begining about 10,000 years ago and associated with the early domestication of plants and animals, and settlement in permanent villages
horticulture
cultivation of crops carried out with simple hand tools such as digging sticks or hoes
slash and burn cultivation
also known as swidden farming. extensive horticulture:natural vegetation is cut , the slash is burned and crops are planted among the ashes,
agriculture
large-scale cultivation using plows harnessed to animals or more powerful energy sources
pastoralism
Breeding and managing migratory herds of domesticated grazing animals, such as goats, sheep, cattle, llamas, or camels.
peasant
a person who does farm work for wealthy landowners
economic system
An organized arrangement for producing, distributing and consuming goods.
Technology
the skills and knowledge used by people to make tools and do work
reciprocity
the exchange of goods and services, of approximately equal value, between two parties
generalized reciprocity
a mode of exchange in which the value of what is given is not calculated, nor is the time of repayment specified
balanced reciprocity
a mode of exchange in which the giving and the receiving are specific as to the value of the goods and the time of their delivery
negative reciprocity
a form of exchange in which the aim is to get something for as little as possible; neither fair nor balanced, it may involve hard bargaining, manipulation, and outright cheating
silent trade
a form of barter in which no verbal communication takes place
kula ring
a form of balanced reciprocity (A big ceremony)that reinforces trade relations among the seafaring Trobriand people, who inhabit a large ring of islands in the southwestern Pacific Ocean off the eastern coast of Papua New Guinea, and other Melanesians.
redistribution
a form of exchange in which goods flow into a central place, where they are sorted, counted, and reallocated
conspicuous consumption
a showy display of wealth for social prestige
potlatch
ceremonial dinner held by some native americans of the northwest coast to show off their wealth by giving away gifts to guests
prestige economy
creation of a surplus for the express purpose of gaining prestige through a public display of wealth that is given away as gifts
leveling mechanism
a societal obligation compelling a family to distribute goods so that no one accumulates more wealth than anyone else
market exchange
the buying and selling of goods and services, with prices set by rules of supply and demand
money
any substance that serves as a medium of exchange, a measure of value, and a store of value.
informal economy
Economic activity that is neither taxed nor monitored by a government; and is not included in that government's Gross National Product; as opposed to a formal economy
consanguineal kin
Biologically related relatives commonly referred to as blood relatives
affinal kin
People related through marraige
incest taboo
the prohibition of sexual relationships between certain culturally specified relatives
endogamy
marriage within the tribe, caste, or social group
exogamy
marriage outside the tribe, caste, or social group
monogamy
marriage to only one person
serial monogamy
a succession of short monogamous relationships (as by someone who undergoes multiple divorces)
polygamy
marriage to several people at the same time
polygny
marriage of a man to two or more women at the same time
polyandry
a form of polygamy in which a woman may have more than one husband at the same time
group marriage
marriage in which several men and women have sexual access to one another; also called co-marriage
fictive marriage
marriage by proxy to the symbols of someone and not physically present to establish the social status of a spouse and heirs
parallel cousin
child of a father's brother or a mother's sister
cross cousin
child of a mother's brother or a father's sister
bride-price
wealth the husband or his family gives to the bride's family; also called bride wealth
bride service
a designated period of time after marriage when the groom works for the brides family
dowry
payment of a woman's inheritance at the time of her marriage, wither to her or to her husband.
family
Two or more people related by blood, marriage, or adoption; takes many forms from single parent to polygamous spouses, to several generations of parents and their children.
household
The basic residential unit where economic production, consumption, inheritance, child rearing, and shelter are organized and carried out.
conjugal family
a family based on marriage
consanguineal family
a family of "blood realatives" consisting of related women, thier brothers, and the women's offspring
nuclear family
a family consisting of parents and their children and grandparents of a marital partner
extended family
Two or more closely related nuclear families clusters together into a large domestic group.
patrilocal residence
a residence pattern in which a married couple lives in the husband's father's place of residence
matrilocal residence
a residence pattern in which a married couple lives in the wife's mother's place of residence
ambilocal residence
a residence pattern in which a married couple may choose either matrilocal or patrilocal residence
neolocal residence
a pattern in which a married couple establish their household in a location apart from either the husband's or the wife's relatives
kinship
A network of relatives within which individuals possess certain mutual rights and obligations.
descent group
Any kin-ordered social group with a membership in the direct line of descent from a real (hist
unilineal descent
establishes group membership exclusively through either the male or female line
matrilineal descent
a system of tracing descent through the mother's side of the family
patrilineal descent
descent traced exclusively through the male line to establish group membership
lineage
the descendants of one individual who lived four to six generations ago, and relationships among members can be traced in genealogical terms.
clan
An extended unilineal kinship group, whose members claim common descent from an ancestor (usually legendary or mythological)
fission
The splitting of a descent group into two or more new descent groups.
totemism
The belief that people are related to particular animals, plants, or natural objects by virtue of descent from common ancestral spirits.
phratry
A unilineal descent group composed of at least two clans that supposedly share a common ancestry, whether or not they really do.
moiety
Each group that results from a division of a society into two halves on the basis of descent.
kindred
An individual's close blood relatives on the maternal and paternal sides of his or her family.
EGO
The central person from whom the degree of each relationship is traced.
Eskimo system
Kinship reckoning w/ emphasis on the nuclear family. (like ours...)
Hawaiian system
Kinship reckoning in which all relatives of the same sex and generation are referred to by the same name. (Braddah or Sista)
Iroquois system
Kinship reckoning where father + father's brother are called by same name and mother + mother's sister same name, but father's sister and mother's brother are called by different names.
New Reproductive Technologies (NRTs)
Alternative means of reproduction. i.e. surrogate mother, and in vitro fertilization.
age grade
category of people based on age; children, teens, adults..etc
age set
People born during same time span. (i.e. baby boomers or generation "X")
Common interest associations
People sharing similar activities, objectives, values, or beliefs.
stratified societies
A society with a hierarchy divided into ranks, or layers, and do not share equally in basic resources that support survival, influence, or prestige.
egalitarian societies
Everybody has about equal rank, access to, and power over basic resources.
social class
A category of individuals in a stratified society who enjoy equal or nearly equal prestige according to the system of evaluation.
caste
membership of a social class in a stratified society determined by birth, and is fixed for life. (i.e. India's "untouchables")
Social mobility
Upward or downward change in one's social class position in a stratified society.
power
ability to impose will on others and make them do things against their own wills.
political organization
distribution of power in a society; how society maintains social order.
band
A small, loosely organized kin-ordered group that inhabits a specific territory and that may split periodically into smaller groups that are politically independent. (i.e. food foragers/nomads)
Tribe
Range of kin-ordered groups that are politically integrated by some unifying factor and whose members share a common ancestry, identity, culture, language, and territory. (i.e. Native American tribal counicls)
chiefdom
A regional polity in which two or more local groups are organized under a single chief, who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people. (i.e. Kpelle chief in LIberia)
state
A political organization w/ a large # of people within a defined territory who are divided into social classes and organized and directed by a formal government that has capacity and authority to make laws, and use force to defend the social order.
nation
A people who share a collective identity based on common: culture, language, territorial base, and history.
legitimacy
The right of a political leader to govern; usually based on the values of a particular society.
cultural control
control through beliefs and values deeply internalized in the minds of individuals
social control
External control through open coercion.
sanction
An externalized social control designed to encourage conformity to social norms.
law
Formal rules of conduct that, when violated, effectuate negative sanctions.
negotiation
the use of direct argument and compromise by the parties to a dispute to arrive voluntarily at a mutually satisfactory agreement.
mediation
settling a dispute through negotiation assisted by an unbiased third party.
adjuction
mediation with an unbiased third party making the ultimate decision.