Language
A symbolic system of sounds that when put together according to a certain set of rules, conveys meanings to its speakers
- enables humans to think abstractly
Arbitrary Nature of Language
the meanings attached to words in any language are not based on a logical or rational system but rather are arbitrary
Displacement
The ability to talk about things that are remote in time and space
- enables humans to speak of purely hypothetical things, events that have happened in the past and events that might happen in the future
Communication: human vs nonhuman
- most animals have ways of sending and receiving messages
- Some nonhuman primate species draw on a large number of modes of communication, including various calls as well as nonverbal forms of communication - facial expressions, body movements and gestu
Open and Closed Communication Systems
- Nonhuman forms of communication - closed systems
- Humans - open systems because they are capable of sending messages that have never been sent before
Closed System of Communication
Communication in which the user cannot create new sounds or words by combining two or more existing sounds or words
Open System
Communication in which the user can create new sounds/words by combining 2 or more existing sounds or words
Structure of Language
- Human languages have 2 aspects of structure: a sound (or phonological) structure and a grammatical structure
Phonology
Study of a language's sound system
- each language uses a finite number of sounds-phonemes
Phonemes
The smallest units of sound that signal a difference in meaning
Morphemes
The smallest linguistic forms (usually words) that convey meaning
- Majority of words in any language are made up of 2 more more morphemes
Free Morpheme
A morpheme that can convey meaning while standing alone without being attached to other morphemes
Bound Morpheme
A morpheme that can convey meaning only when combined with another morpheme
Grammar
The systematic rules by which sounds are combined in a language to enable users to send and receive meaningful utterances
- consists of 2 parts: morphology, syntax
Morphology
Study of rules governing how morphemes are formed into words
Syntax
Linguistic rules, found in all languages, determine how phrases and sentences are constructed
Synchronic Analysis
Analysis of cultural data at a single point in time, rather than through time
Diachronic Analysis
Analysis of sociocultural data through time, rather than at a single point in time
Historical Linguistics
The study of how languages change over time
- Languages change for internal reasons, also changed by external forces or linguistic borrowing
Language Family
A grouping of related languages
- By comparing similar languages, linguists are able to identify their common features
Are some languages superior to others?
- English Language can convey all of the same info but it requires many more words
- Hardly reasonable to conclude that one language is more efficient at expressing abstract ideas than the other
Cultural Linguistics
Study of the relationship between language and culture
Cultural Emphasis
The idea that the vocabulary in any language tends to emphasize words that are adaptively important in that culture
Saphir-whorf hypothesis
The notion that a person's language shapes his/her perceptions and view of the world
Doublespeak
The use or euphemisms to confuse or deceive
Linguistic Style
- Some linguistic groups send explicit messages directly while other groups communicate indirectly by sending more implicit messages
- Differing linguistic styles can lead to cross-cultural misunderstandings
- Aspect of indirect vs direct linguistic style
Sociolinguistics
- Concentrate on variations in language use depending on the social situation or context in which the speaker is operating
- Bilingualism & multilingualism - ex of situational use of language
- Major focus of sociolinguistics is the relationship between l
Code Switching
Practice of adapting one's language depending on the social situation
Diglossia
- The situation in which 2 forms of the same language are spoken by the same person at different times and in different social situations
- In all cases of diglossia - 1 form of language is high and other low
- High forms of language are associated with l
Nonverbal communication
- Various means by which humans send and receive messages without using word (gestures, facial expressions, touching)
- Important because it helps us to interpret linguistic messages and often carries messages of its own
- Nonverbal forms of communication
Hand Gestures
- A single hand gesture carries with it many different meanings throughout the world
Posture (body stance)
Way people hold their bodies often communicates information about their social status, religious practices, feelings of submissiveness, desires to maintain social distance & sexual intentions
- Submissiveness is conveyed by making oneself appear smaller b
Touching
- Most personal and intimate form of nonverbal communication
- Some cultures have been described as low-touch and high-touch