railroads
Networks of iron (later steel) rails on which steam (later electric or diesel) locomotives pulled long trains at high speeds. The first railroads were built in England in the 1830s. Their success caused a railroad-building boom throughout the world that l
submarine telegraph cables
Insulated copper cables laid along the bottom of a sea or ocean for telegraphic communication. The first short cable was laid across the English Channel in 1851; the first successful transatlantic cable was laid in 1866
steel
A form of iron that is both durable and flexible. It was first mass-producd in the 1860s and quickly became the most widely used metal in construction, machinery, and railroad equipment
electricity
A form of energy used in telegraphy from the 1840s on and for lighting, industrial motors, and railroads beginning in the 1880s
Thomas Edison
1847-1931; American inventor best known for inventing the electric light bulb, acoustic recording on wax cylinders, and motion pictures
Victorian Age
The reign of Queen Victoria of Great Britain (r. 1837-1901). The term is also used to describe late 19th century society, with its rigid moral standards and sharply differentiated roles for men and women and for middle-class and working-class people
separate spheres
19th century idea in Western societies that men and women, especially of the middle class, should have clearly differentiated roles in society: women as wives, mothers, and homemakers; men as bread-winners and participants in business and politics
socialism
A political ideology that originated in Europe in the 1830s. Followers advocated government protection of workers from exploitation by property owners and government ownership of industries. This ideology led to the founding of labor parties throughout Eu
labor union
An organization of workers in a particular industry or trade, created to defend the interests of members through strikes or negotiations with employers
Karl Marx
1818-1883; German journalist and philosopher, founder of the Marxist branch of socialism. He is known for two books: "The Communist Manifesto" (1848) and "Das Kapital" (Vol. I-III, 1867-1894)
anarchist
Revolutionaries who wanted to abolish all private property and governments, usually by violence, and replace them with free associations of groups
nationalism
A political ideology that stresses people's membership in a nation-a community defined by a common culture and history as well as by territory. In the late 18th and early 19th century, this ideology was a force for unity in western Europe. In the later 19
liberalism
A political ideology that emphasizes the civil rights of citizens, representative government, and the protection of private property. This ideology, derived from the Enlightenment, was especially popular among the property-owning middle classes of Europe
Giuseppe Garibaldi
1807-1882; Italian nationalist and revolutionary who conquered Sicily and Naples and added them to a unified Italy in 18600
Otto von Bismarck
1815-1898; Chancellor (prime minister) of Prussia from 1862 until 1871, when he became chancellor of Germany. A conservative nationalist, he led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) and France (1870) and was responsible for the creation of the German
Empress Dowager Cixi
1835-1908; Empress of China and mother of Emperor Guangxi. She put her son under house arrest, supported anti-foreign movements, and resisted reforms of the Chinese government and armed forces
Meiji Restoration
The political program that followed the destruction of the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868, in which a collection of young leaders set Japan on the path of centralization, industrialization, and imperialism
Yamagata Aritomo
1838-1922; One of the leaders of the Meiji Restoration