Indicator pH 5-8
Blue Litmus (red-blue)
Indicator pH 5-8
Red Litmus (red-blue)
Indicator pH 8.3-10
Phenolpthalein (colourless-pink)
Indicator pH 6.8-8.4
Phenol Red (yellow-red)
Indicator pH 6.2-7.6
Bromothymol Blue (yellow-blue)
Indicator pH 4.4-6
Methyl Red (pink-yellow)
Indicator pH 3.8-5.4
Bromocresol Green (yellow-green/yellow-blue-green)
Indicator pH 3.1-4.4
Methyl Orange (red-yellow)
Indicator pH 3-4.6
Bromophenol Blue (yellow-blue)
Indicator pH - Orange, Orange Yellow, Green, Dark Green, Blue, Blue, Purple, Purple, Purple
Universal Indicator (Red-Red-Orange Red-.... - Pale Orange-....-Pale Yellow-Yellow Green-...-...-...-....-....-....-....)
Indicator pH 0-3
Cabbage (Cyanidin) (red/cerise)
Indicator pH 4
Cabbage (Cyanidin) (purple)
Indicator pH 5-8
Cabbage (Cyanidin) (blue/aqua)
Indicator pH 9-11
Cabbage (Cyanidin) (dark green/lime)
Indicator pH 12-14
Cabbage (Cyanidin) (yellow)
Soluble
Group 1
Soluble
Ammonium compounds
Soluble
Acetates/ethanoates
Soluble
Chlorides (except Ag, Pb2)
Soluble
Nitrates
Soluble
Bromides (except Ag, Pb2)
Soluble
Iodides (except Ag, Pb2)
Soluble
Sulfates (except Ag, Pb2, Ba, Sr, Ca)
Insoluble
Carbonates (except group 1 and NH4+)
Insoluble
Sulfites (except group 1 and NH4+)
Insoluble
Phosphates (except group 1 and NH4+)
Insoluble
Hydroxides (except group 1, NH4+, Ba, Sr, Ca)
Insoluble
Oxides (except group 1, NH4+, Ba, Sr, Ca)
Insoluble
Sulfides (except groups 1, 2, NH4+)
salt + water
acid + base ?
salt + hydrogen gas
acid + metal ?
carbon dioxide (gas) + salt + water
acid + carbonate?
carbonate
a _______ is a salt of carbonic acid, characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion,CO3 -2
water + carbon dioxide
(complete combustion) hydrocarbon + oxygen?
H3PO4
Catalyst for hydration of ethylene
fermentation
Glucose +yeast (catalyst) ? ethanol + CO2 + H2O
condensed formula for ethanol
C2H5OH
-OH
functional group of alkanols/alcohol
Anode
oxidation occurs at the _______
Cathode
reduction occurs at the _______
Endothermic
__________reactions absorb heat
Exothermic
__________reactions release heat
Fractional Distillation
__________is a process by which substances are vaporised and then condensed by cooling.
C6H12O6
chemical formula for glucose
Isomer
a compound that contains the same numbers and kinds of atoms as another but has a different structure.
Isotope
_______ are atoms of the same element (same atomic number) but different mass number.
Reflux
a process in a chemical reaction where the remaining reactants are returned to the reaction in order to increase conservation or recovery.
Transuranic
elements that have an atomic number > 92
Zeolites
Complex aluminosilicates consisting of large lattices of aluminium, silicon and oxygen atoms.
H3PO4
Phosphoric acid
Red
litmus paper is _____ in acidic solution.
Yellow
methyl orange is _______in neutral solution
Red
methyl orange is _______in Very acidic solution
Blue
bromothymol blue is ______ in basic solution.
Acid rain
is rain that has a higher concentration of hydrogen ions that pure water.
Acidic oxide
is an oxide that shows acidic properties, but not basic properties. That is, it reacts with water to form an acid and/or reacts with bases to form salts. Examples include NO?, SO?, SO?and P?O?.
Acidic salt
is a substance formed when a strong acid is neutralised by a weak base. In solution these salts (eg. ammonium chloride and sodium hydrogen sulfate) are acidic.
Alkali
is a water soluble compound of the alkali metals (or ammonia) and acts as a strong base producing a high concentration of hydroxide ions in aqueous solution.
Amphiprotic
describes a substance that can act as both a proton donor and a proton acceptor. Examples are H?O, HS?, HCO??, HPO??, and HSO??.
Amphoteric oxide
is an oxide that shows both acidic properties or basic properties, depending on the condition. Examples are ZnO, Al?O?, and PbO.
Arrhenius acid
is a substance that, in solution, produces hydrogen ions. More strictly, these hydrogen ions join onto water molecules to form hydronium ions H?+H?O ?H?O?.
Arrhenius base
is a substance that, in solution, can produce a hydroxide ion, OH?. (In more modern terms, a base is a species that can accept a hydrogen ion from an acid, or that can donate an electron pair to a Lewis acid.)
Basic oxide
is the oxide of a metal that displays basic properties, but not acidic properties. That is, it reacts with acids to form salts but does not react with alkali solutions. Examples are Na?O, CaO, and Fe?O?.
Basic salt
is a substance formed when a weak acid is neutralised by a strong base. In solution these salts are alkaline, for example, potassium carbonate and sodium nitrate.
Buffer
is a chemical substance that prevents any large changes to its pH if small amounts of acid or base are added.
Carboxylic acids
are a major class of organic compounds having general formula RCOOH where R is an organic group.
Concentrated
describes a solution containing a relatively large amount of solute.
Condensation reaction
is a reaction where one of the products is water. Esterification is an example of a condensation reaction.
Conjugate acid-base pairs
are acid and base pairs where the base has one proton less than the acid. For example, if HA is teh acid then A? is its conjugate base.
Dilute
describes a solution containing a relatively small amount of solute.
Dissociation
refers to the process where ions that already exist in an ionic compound are released when that substance dissolves.
Dynamic equilibrium
refers to the rate of forward reaction being the same as the rate of reverse reaction in a chemical reaction.
Emollient
is a softening agent.
Emulsifying agent
is a substance that can disperse one liquid in another immiscible one.
End point
is the point during a titration when the indicator changes colour, signalling that the reactants have completely reacted.
Endothermic
describes a reaction where heat is taken in.
Equivalence point
is the point reached during a titration when enough base has been added to neutralise the acid or when enough acid has been added to neutralise the base.
Esterification
is a chemical reaction in which an organic acid chemically bonds with an alcohol, with the elimination of water: alkanoic acid + alkanol ? ester + water.
Exothermic
describes a reaction where heat is given out.
Functional group
is either an atom or group of atoms in all members of a homologous series that bestows certain chemical and physical properties onto the group. For example, alcohols, R-OH, contain the -OH functional group. Carboxylic acids, R-COOH, contain the -COOH functional group.
Homologous families
describes a series or family of similar carbon compounds differing in their number of -CH?- groups but containing the same functional group. It is this functional group that gives them similar chemical properties. For example, methanol (CH?OH), ethanol (CH?CH?OH) and propanol (CH?CH?CH?OH) form the first three members of the alkanol homologous series.
Hydrolysis reaction
is a reaction with water.
Indicator definition
is a substance that indicates when the concentration of a chemical species has passed a certain pH by a change of colour.
Ionisation reaction
is the reaction between a molecular substance and water producing ions.
IUPAC nomenclature
is the system provided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry for clearly naming chemicals with an explicit or implied relationship to the structure of compounds.
Le Chatelier's Principle
states that if a system at equilibrium is disturbed, the system tries to adjust itself so as to minimise that disturbance.
Neutral oxide
is an oxide that displays neither acidic or basic properties. Examples include CO, N?O and NO.
Neutral salt
is a substance formed when a strong acid is neutralised by a strong base or when a weak acid is neutralised by a weak base. In solution these salts (eg. potassium chloride and ammonium acetate) are neutral.
Neutralisation
describes the reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water only.
Primary standard
is a substance of relatively high purity and stability that a solution of accurate concentration can be made from by direct weighing of a pure and dry chemical. Examples are sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate and hydrated oxalic acid.
Refluxing
is a process of heating a reaction mixture in a vessel with an upright cooling condenser attached. This prevents the loss of volatile reactants and products and allows the reaction to be carried out at a higher temperature than would otherwise be possible.
Spectator ion
is an ion present in solution and does not take part in the reaction. It is there to preserve charge neutrality.
Standard solution
is a solution that has an accurately known concentration.
Strong acid
is a solution in which the acid is effectively 100% ionised and/or dissociated.
Titrant
is a solution of known composition and concentrations used during titrations. This is the standard solution to be delivered from a burette.
Titration
is a common technique of volumetric analysis in which a standard solution of one reagent is added little by little from a burette to a second reagent whose concentration is to be determined until the end point is reached.
Volumetric analysis
is a quantitative analysis of solutions having unknown concentration of some chemical, though the volume of solution is known, by adding a reagent of known concentration until a reaction end point is reached.
Weak acid
is a solution in which the acid is ionised only to a small extent.
Equation for formation of carbonic acid
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) ? H2CO3 (aq) (carbonic acid)
Equation for formation of sulfurous acid
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) ? H2SO3 (aq) (sulfurous acid)
Equation for the formation of nitrous acid
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) ? HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq) (nitric and nitrous acid)
Equation for the formation of phosphoric acid
P2O5 (g) + 3H2O (l)? 2H3PO4 (aq) (phosphoric acid)
Metal(basic) oxides
_______ react with water to produce base
Lavoisier
Scientist who suggested acids contain oxygen
Davy
scientist who showed HCL does not contain oxygen. suggested that acids contained hydrogen.
Arrhenius
Suggested that acids are substances that when in solution produce positive hydrogen ions.
Arrhenius
Suggested that bases are substances that when in solution produce negative hydroxide ions.
Bronsted Lowry
Suggested that acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors.
Amphiprotic
a substance able to accept or donate a proton.
9 (phenolphthalein)
Indicator and pH for weak acid/strong base titrations.
7 (bromothymol blue)
Indicator and pH for strong acid/strong base titrations.
4 (methyl orange)
Indicator and pH for strong acid/weak base titrations.
Buffer
a solution that resist any great change in pH.
Functional group of Alkanols (alcohols)
group has the functional -OH group.
Functional group for Alkanoic acid
fucntional -COOH group
Functional group for Ester
compound with general form of R'COOR.
How to name an Ester
Nomenclature:alkanol-alkan(oic)oate
General equation for formation of ester
Alkanoic acid + alkanol ? Ester + water
conc. H2SO4
catalyst for esterification
Screening
The removal of large debris
Aeration
The increasing of dissolved oxygen by spraying, which causes iron salts to be oxidised to insoluble oxides
Flocculation
The coagulation of colloidal and particulate matter to form flocs
Sedimentation
The settling of flocs to form a sludge
Filtration
Formation of clear water by removal of substances that cause turbidity and colouration, using beds of sand and gravel as well as charcoal filters
Chlorination
The disinfecting of water using chlorine gas and various hypochlorites, which kill microorganisms
pH Adjustment
The adjustment of pH to between 7 and 8.5 using buffering chemicals
Fluoridation
Adding of fluoride compounds to help prevent tooth decay (resulting in a fluoride concentration of about 1 ppm)
Adsorption
is the process by which chemicals and other particles are attracted to and held by a solid surface.
Allotrope
is one of several structural forms of the same element in the same state. For example, diamond, graphite and fullerenes are allotropes.
Anaerobic decomposition
is decomposition without oxygen. Many bacteria can carry out respiration without using oxygen. Decomposition under these conditions produces gases and other wastes that would not be present in aerobic decomposition.
Aquifer
is an underground rock formation through which ground water can easily percolate. Sandstone, gravel beds and jointed limestone make good aquifers. The Botany aquifer consists of sandstone.
Chemiluminescence
is luminescence caused by a chemical reaction, usually oxidation. The moleculesare excited to a high energy level and emit light as they return to the ground state.
Chlorofluorocarbon
is a compound containing carbon, chlorine and fluorine.
Coagulation
is the process of adding coagulants (chemicals or a mixture of chemicals) to cause particules that are slow to settle or are non-settling to settle out more readily. The coagulant reacts with the particles in the water, forming larger particles called flocs that settle out rapidly.
Coliform
is a type of bacteria found in raw water. Coliforms are used as a microbiological indicator for the possible presence of other disease-producing organisms arising from faecal contaimination. They are measured in colony forming units (CFU). A CFU is the number of bacterial cells, or clumps of cells, that can be developed into a colony when grown under laboratory conditions. Coliforms are killed by chlorine.
Complete combustion
is when a hydrocarbon burns in a plentiful oxygen supply and the combustion products are carbon dioxide and water.
Coordinate covalent bond
is a colvalent bond that has formed when one atom provides both electrons to form the shared bonding pair.
Cryptosporidium
is a micro-organism occurring in the gut of warm-blooded animals. Its cysts are more resistant to disinfection than are bacteria or viruses. Sydney Water has enhanced its filtration process to prevent, as far as possible, these micro-organisms passing through the filters before disinfection. In 1998 Sydney Water issued 'boil water' alerts after discovering this mico-organism in Sydney's drinking water.
Equilibrium constant
is K. When equilbrium is reached the concentration of reactants and products has no tendency to change. For the general equation: aA+bB?cC+dD, the equilibrium constant, K, is given by K=[C]^c[D]^d / [A]^a[B]^b. The concentrations of the products (to the appropriate powers) are written in the numerator, and the concentrations of the reactants are written in the denominator. The value of K remains constant at constant temperature. The larger the value of K, the more the reactants react together to form product. In other words, the magnitude of K provides a useful indication of the extent of a chemical reaction.
Eutrophication
is the process by which lakes and streams become enriched by dissolved nutrients, such as phosphates and nitrates found in fertilisers. This can result in an increased growth of algae (algal bloom) in these waterways and a corresponding drop in dissolved oxygen. This condition can be harmful to other life forms living in these waters.
Flame test
is a qualitative test for cations where a clean platinum wire mounted in a glass holder is dipped into the sample to be tested and then held in a non-luminous Bunsen flame. Many cations burn with distinctive colour.
Flocculation
is the gentle mixing of chemicals with water containing suspended particles to trap colloidal particles, such as mud. The chemicals join tiny particles of dirt, micro-organisms, and fine suspended matter so that they can be more easily filtered out. The larger particles formed can be filtered.
Flocs
are larger particles formed during coagulation. They settle out rapidly and can be effectively removed by passing water through a filter. The process is controlled so that the coagulant chemicals are removed along with the contaminants.
Giardia
is a micro-organism occurring in the gut of warm-blooded animals. Its cysts are more resistant to disinfection than are bacteria or viruses. The levels of chlorine typically found in Sydney's water inactivate giardia cysts. Sydney Water has enhanced its filtration process to prevent, as far as possible, these micro-organisms passing through the filters before disinfection. In 1998 Sydney Water issued 'boil water' alerts after discovering this mico-organism in Sydney's drinking water.
Haber process
is the chemical combination of hydrogen and nitrogen gases in the presence of a catalystm and under high temperatures and pressures, to form ammonia.
Haloalkane
is a derivative of an alkane where one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a halogen (such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine).
Halogen
is a highly reactive non-metal in Group VII of the periodic table. They include the elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. The elements have the general formula X?.
Halon
is a halogenated alkane in which molecules such as methane or ethane have some of their hydrogens replaced with halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine).
Heavy metals
are metals with high atomic masses (and densities). They are normally toxic to humans. Examples are mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium and arsenic.
Incomplete combustion
is when a hydrocarbon burns in a limited oxygen supply and the combustion products include carbon monoxide and carbon.
Isomers
are chmeical compounds having identical chemical compositions and molecular formula but different arrangement of atoms in their molecules and different properties. For example, C?H?Cl is the molecular formula for two isomers: CHCl?CH?(1,1-dichloroethane) and CH?ClCH?Cl (1,2-dichloroethane).
Lewis structure
is a diagram showing the electrons in the outer shell of an atom or group of atoms in a molecule or ions. Each electron is shown as a dot.
Parts per million (ppm)
is a unit for determining the concentrations of substances that are present in very small amounts. 1ppm = 1mg/L.
Pathogen
is a disease-causing organism. For example, several years ago Sydney Water detected high levels of the microbes Giardia and Cryptosporidium in drinking water and took action to remove them.
Photochemical smog
is a brown smog produced when, under the influence pf ultraviolet light, nitrogen oixdes and reactive hydrocarbons in the atmosphere react with oxygen to form PAN (peroxyacetylnitrate) and ozone.
Photodissociation
is the removal of one or more atoms from a molecule when it absorbs energetic electromagnetic radiation.
Polyatomic ion
is an ion consisting of a group of atoms, such as CO?�?, NH?? or PO?�?.
Potable
means fit to drink.
Qualitative analysis
is testing something to find out what chemical substances are in it.
Quantitative analysis
is testing something to find out how much of each substance is present.
Radical
is a molecule or atom. Free radicals are molecules or atoms that have one unpaired electron and hence an unused valence. Most are very reactive and short-lived, such as the O radical.
Sedimentation
is the settling out of larger, insoluble particles over time.
Toxicology
is the science dealing with poisions, their effects on people, antidotes and detection.
Trace element
is a mineral required in minute quantity in an adequate human diet or for the optimum growth and yield of plants.
Turbidity
The quantity of suspended matter in water, such as silt or clay, that may make it look muddy or discoloured. It is measused by the ability of a light beam to pass through a water sample.
UV (ultraviolet) radiation
is high-energy, electromagnetic radiation emanating from the sun with a wavelength range between 200 and 2000nm. There are three classes of interest:
carbonate (CO3 -2)
______ is present in solution if CO2 evolves with addition of dilute inorganic acids.
barium nitrate, white precipitate
what is used to test for Sulfate ion. what forms with addition of this substance.
Silver nitrate, white precipitate (purple with exposure to light)
what is used to test for Chloride ion. what forms with addition of this substance.
silver nitrate, yellow precipitate
what is used to test for Phosphate ion. what forms with addition of this substance.
Flame test for Barium
flame test: Green flame
Sulphate ion, white precipitate
what is used to test for Barium ion. what forms with addition of this substance.
Flame test colour for Calcium
Flame test: brick red
ammonium hydroxide, deep blue ion
what is used to test for Copper (II) ion. what forms with addition of this substance.
Flame test for copper(II)
Flame test: blue green
white
Lead (II) + chloride ions = _______ coloured precipitate.
yellow
Lead (II) + iodine ions = _______ coloured precipitate.
hydroxide ions
test for iron(II) ion, producing green to white precipitate.
ammonia, brown gelatinous precipitate.
what is used to test for Iron (III) ion. what forms with addition of this substance.
troposphere
layer closest to the ground, contains 80% of gases
stratosphere
layer that contains the ozone layer, temperature increases in this layer
mesosphere
this layer extends from 50-80 km above the ground, temperature decreases in this layer
thermosphere
the outermost layer of the atmosphere
free radical
atoms or molecules with one or more unpaired valence electrons
allotrope
different structural forms of the same element
chloroflurocarbons
haloalkanes where all the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by fluroine or chlorine
halon
haloalkanes where all the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by bromine, chlorine and/or fluorine
ozone layer
ozone molecules in the stratosphere absorb ultraviolet radiation, which is harmful to living organisms
ozone
ozone molecules in the troposphere are poisonous to living organisms as it disrupts biochemical reactions
particulates
a mixture of small solid particles and small droplets of liquid
carbon monoxide
an atmospheric pollutant produced from incomplete combustion in cars, fires, cigarettes
nitrogen oxides
an atmospheric pollutant produced from combustion in vehicles and power stations
photochemical smog
a type of air pollution formed from the reaction of sunlight with nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic compounds, producing particulates and ozone
troposphere
layer closest to the ground, contains 80% of gases
stratosphere
layer that contains the ozone layer, temperature increases in this layer
mesosphere
this layer extends from 50-80 km above the ground, temperature decreases in this layer
thermosphere
the outermost layer of the atmosphere
free radical
atoms or molecules with one or more unpaired valence electrons
allotrope
different structural forms of the same element
chloroflurocarbons
haloalkanes where all the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by fluroine or chlorine
halon
haloalkanes where all the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by bromine, chlorine and/or fluorine
ozone layer
ozone molecules in the stratosphere absorb ultraviolet radiation, which is harmful to living organisms
ozone
ozone molecules in the troposphere are poisonous to living organisms as it disrupts biochemical reactions
particulates
a mixture of small solid particles and small droplets of liquid
carbon monoxide
an atmospheric pollutant produced from incomplete combustion in cars, fires, cigarettes
nitrogen oxides
an atmospheric pollutant produced from combustion in vehicles and power stations
photochemical smog
a type of air pollution formed from the reaction of sunlight with nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic compounds, producing particulates and ozone
Ion: Ammonium
NH??
Ion: Nitrite
NO??
Ion: Nitrate
NO??
Ion: Sulfite
SO?�?
Ion: Sulfate
SO?�?
Ion: Hydrogen Sulfate
HSO??
Ion: Hydroxide
OH?
Ion: Cyanide
CN?
Ion: Phosphate
PO?�?
Ion: Hydrogen Phosphate
HPO?�?
Ion: Dihydrogen Phosphate
H?PO??
Ion: Carbonate
CO?�?
Ion: Hydrogen Carbonate
HCO??
Ion: Hypochlorite
ClO?
Ion: Chlorite
ClO??
Ion: Chlorate
ClO??
Ion: Perchlorate
ClO??
Ion: Acetate
C?H?O??
Ion: Permanganate
MnO??
Ion: Dichromate
Cr?O?�?
Ion: Chromate
CrO?�?
Ion: Peroxide
O?�?
Cracking
The controlled process by which hydrocarbons are broken down or rearranged into smaller, more useful molecules
Polymerisation
A chemical reaction joining monomers in long chains to form a polymer
Addition Polymer
One that is formed from unsaturated monomers without the loss of a any atom
Condensation Polymer
Formed by the elimination of a small molecule (often water) when pairs of monomers join together. The monomer must contain a functional group at either end
Hydration
Refers to the addition of water molecule across a double bond
Fermentation
The process in which glucose is broken down to ethanol and carbon dioxide by the action of yeast enzymes (zymase)
Metal Displacement Reaction
Cccurs when one metal converts the ion of another metal into a neutral atom through transfer of electrons.
Oxidation
The loss of electrons leading to an increase in oxidation number
Reduction
The gain of electrons leading to a decrease in oxidation number
Galvanic Cell
A device that uses spontaneous redox chemical reaction to generate. It converts chemical energy into electrical
Anode
The electrode in which oxidation occurs
Cathode
The electrode in which reduction occurs
Salt bridge
Maintains electrical neutrality and completes the circuit by allowing the migration of ions to occur between the two half-cells
Nuclear Stability
Depends on the ratio of neutrons to protons and the total number of particles
Transuranic Elements
Are non-naturally occurring elements that have an atomic number greater than that of uranium (Z >92)
Indicators
A substance which in solution changes the colour over a specific pH range depending on whether the solution is acidic or basic
Amphoteric Oxides
Substances that react with both strong acids and bases (Semi-Metals)
Le Chatelier's Principle
States that if a closed system at equilibrium experiences a change that disturbs the equilibrium, then the equilibrium will respond to shift in the direction to minimise the disturbance. A new equilibrium is then established
Acid Rain
Rain with a pH below 5 and is formed when acidic oxides such as SO2 and NOx are removed from the atmosphere through dissolution in rain forming acidic water
B-L Definition Acid
Is a proton donor
B-L Definition Base
Is a proton acceptor
Strong Acid
Is completely ionised in aqueous solution to produce hydrogen/hydronium ions
Weak Acid
Is partially ionised in aqueous solution, forming an equilibrium reaction
Concentrated Solution
One in which the total concentration of solute species is relatively high
Dilute Solution
One in which the total concentration of solute species is relatively low
Lavoisier definition acids
Acids were substances that contained oxygen
Davy definition acids
Acids were substances that contained a replaceable oxygen
Arrhenius definition acids
An acid was a substance that ionised in solution to produce hydrogen ions
Amphiprotic Substance
One which can act as both an acid (proton donor) or a base (proton acceptor)
Neutralisation
Proton transfer reaction between an acid and a base which is exothermic
Buffer
Substance that maintains a fairly constant pH in a solution by accepting H+ ions when their levels rise and donating H+ ions when their levels fall
Volumetric Analysis
Quantitative analysis by the use of definite volumes of standard solutions or reagents
Esterification
Is the reaction between an alkanol and an alkanoic acid to produce an ester
Refluxing
The process of heating a reaction mixture in a vessel with a cooling condenser attached in order to prevent the loss of any volatile reactant or product
Equation for Dehydration of Ethanol
C?H?OH(aq) ?C?H?(g) + H?O(l) [conc. H?SO?]
Equation for Hydration of Ethene
C?H?(g) + H?O(l) ?C?H?OH(aq) [dil. H?SO?]
Equation for Photosynthesis
6H?O(l) + 6CO?(g) ? C?H??O?(aq) + 6O?(g)
Equation for Fermentation
C?H??O?(aq) ? 2C?H?OH(aq) + 2CO?(g)
Equation for Combustion of ethanol
C?H?OH(aq) + 3O?(g) ? 2CO?(g) + 3H?O
Molar Heat of Combustion formula
?H = -mc?T
Dry Cell (Leclanche Cell) chemistry equations
Zn(s) + 2NH??(aq) + 2MnO?(s) ? Zn�?(aq) + Mn?O?(s) + 2NH?(aq) + H?O(l)
Silver-Oxide Button Cell overall reaction
Zn(s) + Ag?O(s) ? 2Ag?(aq) + ZnO(s)
Cracking equation example
C??H??(s) ? C?H??(l) + C?H?(g)
Equation Acidic Oxides
React with water to form acids
CO?(g) + H?O(l) ? H?CO?(aq)
Equation Basic Oxides
React with water to produce OH? ions
MgO(s) + H?O(l) ? Mg�?(aq) + 2OH?
Carbon Dioxide and Water Equilibrium
CO?(g) + H?O(l) ? H?CO?(aq) + heat
H?CO?(aq) ? 2H?(aq) + CO?�?(aq)
CO?(g) ? CO?(aq)
Equation for Sulfur Dioxide formation
S(s) + O?(g) ? SO?(g)
Equation for Smelting of CuS
CuS(s) + O?(g) ? Cu(s) + SO?(g)
EQuation for Formation of Nitrogen Oxide
N?(g) + O?(g) ? 2NO(g)
EQuation for Formation of Nitrogen Dioxide
2NO(g) + O?(g) ? 2NO?(g)
Equation for Acid Rain: Sulfur Dioxide
SO?(g) + H?O(l) ? H?SO?(aq) or
2H?SO?(aq) + O?(g) ?2H?SO?(aq)
SO?(g) + H?O(l) ? H?SO?(aq)
Acid Rain: Oxides of Nitrogen
2NO?(g) + H?O(l) ? HNO?(aq) + HNO?(aq)
2HNO?(aq) + O?(g) ? 2HNO?(aq)
Weathering of Limestone Buildings
CaCO?(s) + H?SO?(aq) ? CaSO?(aq) + CO?(g) + H?O(l)
CaCO?(s) + HNO?(aq) ? Ca(NO?)?(aq) + CO?(g) + H?O(l)
formula for pH
pH=?log??[H?]
Neutralisation general equation
Acid + Base ? Salt + H?O + heat
Blood: Carbonic Acid/ Hydrogen Carbonate ion equation
CO?(g) + H?O(l) ? H?CO?(aq)
H?CO?(aq) ? HCO?? + H?
Haemoglobin equation
HHb? + 4O? ? Hb(O?)? + H?
haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin
Alkanoic Acids general formula
C??�H�??�COOH
Esterification
Alkanol + Alkanoic Acid ? Ester + Water [conc. H?SO?]
Fertiliser
NH?(g) + HNO?(aq) ? NH?NO?(aq)
NH?(g) + H?SO?(aq) ? (NH?)?SO?(aq)
NH3 as a Cleaning Agent
NH?(g) + H?O(l) ? NH?OH(aq)
The Haber Process equation
3H?(g) + N?(g) ? 2NH?(g) + heat [Fe?O? catalyst]
Test for CO?�?
2H? + CO?�? ? CO? + H?O
Test for Cl?
Ag? + Cl? ? AgCl
Test for SO?�?
Ba�? + SO?�? ? BaSO?
Test for Pb�?
Pb�? + 2I? ? PbI?
Test for Ba�?
Ba�? + CO?�? ? BaCO?
Test for Ca�?
Ca�? + CO?�? ? CaCO?
Ozone: Lower Atmosphere
N? + O? ? 2NO
2NO + O? ? 2NO?
2NO + O? ? 2NO?
NO? ? NO + O�
O� + O? ? O?
Ozone: Upper Atmosphere
O? ? O? + O� [UV light]
O? + O� ? O?
CFCs equation
CCl?F? ? Cl� + CCl?F?� [UV light]
This free radical reacts with ozone
Cl� + O? ? ClO� + O?
Oxide then reacts with an oxygen free radical
ClO� + O� ? Cl� + O?
DO/ BOD equation
O?(g) ? O?(aq) + heat
Flocculation/ Coagulation equation
Al�?(aq) + 3H?O(l) ? Al(OH)?(s) + 3H?(aq)
The Contact Process equation
1. S(s) + O?(g) ? SO?(g)
2. 2SO?(g) + O?(g) ? 2SO?(g) [V?O?]
3. SO?(g) + H?SO?(l) ? H?S?O?(l)
4. H?S?O?(l) + H?O(l) ? 2H?SO?(l)
Sulfuric Acid: Oxidising Agent equation
Zn(s) + H?SO?(aq) ? ZnSO?(aq) + H?(g)
Sulfuric Acid: Dehydrating Agent equation
C?H?OH(aq) ?C?H?(g) + H?O(l) [conc. H?SO?]
Reaction with Sucrose equation
C??H??O??(s) ? 12C(s) + 11H?O(l) [conc.H?SO?]
Accelerators definition
or particle acclerators, are atomic research tools used to acelerate subatomic particles to high velocities. They use electrostatic and electromagnetic fields to accelerate particles in a straight line.
Addition polymerisation definition
is a method where simple monomer units unite together to form a long-chain polymer by simple addition. No other product is formed.
Addition reaction definition
is a reaction where a double or triple bond breaks open so that 'new' atoms may be added to the primary compound.
Alkane definition
is a hydrocarbon, such as propane C?H?, that does not contain any double or triple bonds.
Alkanols definition
are derived from saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons by replacing a hydrogen atom by a hydroxyl (-OH) group. The general formula for a simple alcohol is CnH2n+1OH.
Anode definition
is an electrode at which oxidation occurs. It is the negative terminal of a galvanic cell.
Atomic number definition
is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
Battery definition
is a source of direct electric current made up of one or more galvanic cells.
Bioethanol
is ethanol derived from plant material such as agricultural waste, straw, plant material left from logging, cellulose (paper), or crops. This ethanol is chemically indistinguishable from that produced from industrial sources, such as the hydration of ethylene.
Biomass definition
is the total mass, or weight, of living material in a particular area. It includes wood, straw, bagasse (the pulp of sugar cane after the juice has been extracted), animal and other organic wastes/
Biopolymers definition
are polymers that are made totally, or in a large part, by living organisms. Examples include cellulose, starch and proteins but also include partly synthesised polymers such as rayon, cellophane and cellulose nitrate (used in the movie industry last century).
Calorimetry definition
is the measurment of the heat changes associated with chemical reactions and physical processes.
Catalyst definition
is a chemical that can change the rate of a chemical reaction but remains unchanged at the end of the reaction. Catalysts are specific for particular reactions.
Catalytic cracking definition
is cracking using catalysts to sustain and perpetuate the reaction.
Cathode definition
is an electrode at which reduction occurs. It is the positive terminal of a galvanic cell.