proton
a stable particle with positive charge equal to the negative charge of an electron
electron
an elementary particle with negative charge
neutron
an elementary particle with 0 charge and mass about equal to a proton
nucleus
the positively charged dense center of an atom
diatomic
of or relating to a molecule made up of two atoms
diatomic molcules (7)?
H, O, Cl, F, Br, N
isotope
one of two or more atoms with the same atomic number but with different numbers of neutrons
volume
the amount of 3-dimensional space occupied by an object, measured in liters
1 L equals...?
1000 mL = 1000 cm^3
principle assumptions of kinetic molecular theory of gases (5) ?
1) gaseous molecules have negligible volumes
2) gaseous IMAs are neglible
3) gaseous molcules move continually, randomly, and constantly.
4) The average kinetic energy of a gas depends solely on the gas's temperature (Ea ? T)
5) gaseous molcules collide w
ideal gas
a hypothetical gas with molecules of negligible size that exert no intermolecular forces
real gases vs. ideal gases (4) ?
1) real gases deviate from ideal behavior at high pressures.
2) real gases deviate from ideal behavior at low temperatures
3) at a given P/T, stronger IMA's will result in greater deviation from ideal behavior
4) at high P/low T, the larger the size of th
principal quantum number (n)
the natural number value that determines the energy of the electron and the size of the orbital
secondary, or azimuthal, quantum number (l)
the (0 to n-1) value that determines the shape of the orbital
magnetic quantum number (m,l)
the (-l to +l) value that determines the spatial orientation of the orbital relative to the other
orbitals in the atom
spin quantum number (m,s)
the (+1/2 or -1/2) value that determines the spin of the electron within the orbital
Aufbau principle
This principle states that the lowest energy level orbitals are filled first.
Pauli Exclusion Principle
This principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
Hund's Rule
This states that the most stable arrangement of electrons is that with the maximum number of unpaired electrons, all with the same spin direction.
s-subshell
This subshell has a maximum of 2 electrons.
p-subshell
This subshell has a maximum of 6 electrons.
d-subshell
This subshell has a maximum of 10 electrons.
f-subshell
This subshell has a maximum of 14 electrons.
Why N, P, and As usually have unstable properties?
their valence shells consists of filled s orbitals and half-filled p orbitals.
What periodic trends increase in value, size, or significance as one proceeds down a group?
atomic radius
ionization energy
What periodic trends decrease in value, size, or significance as one proceeds down a group?
ionization energy
electronegativity
ionic size
What periodic trends increase in value, size, or significance as one proceeds left to right in a row?
electronegativity
ionization energy
electron affinity
What periodic trends decrease in value, size, or significance as one proceeds left to right?
atomic radius
What periodic trends increase in value, size, or significance as one proceeds right to left?
atomic radius
exceptions to the ionization energy trend?
The noble gases possess very high ionization energies because of their full valence shell as indicated in the graph. Note that Helium has the highest ionization energy of all the elements.
accuracy
a measure of how close a measurement comes to the actual or true value of whatever is measured
atomic theory
the theory that each element is composed of tiny indestructible particles called atoms, that all atoms of a given element have the same mass and other properties, and that atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form compounds
density
the ratio of the mass of a substance to the volume of the substance
empirical formula
a chemical formula showing the ratio of elements in a compound rather than the total number of atoms
law of definite proportions
the law stating that every pure substance always contains the same elements combined in the same proportions by weight
limiting reactant
the element that restricts the amounts of the other reactants that can combine and the amount of product that can form in a chemical reaction
mixture
a substance consisting of two or more substances mixed together (not in fixed proportions and not with chemical bonding)
molecular formula
a chemical formula based on analysis and molecular weight
percentage yield
The actual yield (experimentally determined) expressed as a percentage of the theoretical yield (calculated).
precision
a measure of how close a series of measurements are to one another
random error
an error that occurs when the selected sample is an imperfect representation of the overall population
systematic error
an error resulting from some imperfect aspect of the research design that causes respondent error or from a mistake in the execution of the research
theoretical yield
the amount of product that can be made in a chemical reaction based on the amount of limiting reactant
uncertainty
an estimate of how much a measured or calculated value differs from a true value
1 nm = ?
? = 1 ? -9 m = 10 Angstrom
angstrom
a metric unit of length equal to one ten billionth of a meter (or 0.0001 micron)
1 angstrom = ?
? = 1.0 ? 10 meters
1 cm�3 = ? unit of volume
? unit of length = 1mL
�F = ? �C
? = 1.8(�C) + 32
K = ? �C
? = �C + 273
density = ?
? = (mass) � (volume)
? = [P � (molar mass)] � RT
Avogadro's number
6.022 ? 23. The number of particles in exactly one mole of a pure substance
mole
the molecular weight of a substance expressed in grams
n = ?
? = (mass) � (molar mass)
molar mass of ideal gas = ?
? = density � molar volume
percent composition = ?
? = [(mass of element, x) � (mass of compound)] � 100
percent error = ?
? = [(observed value ? expected value) � expected value] � 100
tera(T)- = ?
? = 1 ? 12
giga(G)- = ?
? = 1 ? 9
mega(M)- = ?
? = 1 ? 6
kilo(k)- = ?
? = 1 ? 3
hecto(h)- = ?
? = 1 ? 2
deka(da)- = ?
? = 1 ? 1
deci(d)- = ?
? = 1 ? -1
centi(c)- = ?
? = 1 ? -2
milli(m)- = ?
? = 1 ? -3
SI Unit for length = ?
? = meter (m)
SI Unit for mass = ?
? = kilogram (kg)
SI Unit for time = ?
? = second (s, sec)
SI Unit for electrical current = ?
? = ampere (A)
SI Unit for temperature = ?
? = Kelvin (K)
SI Unit for luminous intensity = ?
? = candela (cd)
adiabatic
describing a change in temperature resulting from the cooling of rising air and the warming of sinking air
calorimeter
a measuring instrument that determines quantities of heat
endothermic
(of a chemical reaction or compound) occurring or formed with absorption of heat
enthalpy
a thermodynamic quantity equal to the internal energy of a system plus the product of its volume and pressure
entropy
a thermodynamic quantity representing the amount of energy in a system that is no longer available for doing mechanical work
exothermic
(of a chemical reaction or compound) occurring or formed with evolution of heat
first law of thermodynamics
the fundamental principle of physics that the total energy of an isolated system is constant despite internal changes
Gibbs free energy
The energy in a system that can be used to drive chemical reactions. If the change in free energy of a reaction (?G, the free energy of the products minus the free energy of the energy of the reactants) is negative, the reaction will occur spontaneously.
heat, q
the movement of thermal energy from a substance at a higher temperature to one at a lower temperature
heat of dilution, ?H?dilution
the heat change association with the dilution process
heat of formation, ?H?formation
the heat evolved or absorbed during the formation of one mole of a substance from its component elements
heat of fusion, ?H?fusion
heat absorbed by a unit mass of a solid at its melting point in order to convert the solid into a liquid at the same temperature
heat of hydration, ?H?hydration
the energy released when ions become surrounded by water molecules
heat of reaction, ?H?reaction
the quantity of energy released or absorbed as heat during a chemical reaction
heat of solution, ?H?solution
the heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance is dissolved in a large volume of a solvent
Hess's law
the overall enthalpy change in a reaction is equal to the sum of enthalpy changes for the individual steps in the process
internal energy
the energy of a substance due to both the random motions of its particles and to the potential energy that results from the distances and alignments between the particles
kinetic energy
The energy of motion, which is directly related to the speed of that motion. Moving matter does work by imparting motion to other matter.
second law of thermodynamics
a law stating that mechanical work can be derived from a body only when that body interacts with another at a lower temperature
specific heat, C
the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance one degree centigrade
standard state
The physical state of a substance under the standard conditions of 100 kPa (1 atmosphere) and 298 K (25 �C).
state function
a property of the system that changes independently of its pathway
surroundings
everything in the universe surrounding a thermodynamic system
system
(physical chemistry) a sample of matter in which substances in different phases are in equilibrium
closed system
a system in which material moves from place to place but is not gained or lost from the system.
isolated system
a closed system on which the net external force is zero
open system
a system that can exchange both matter and energy with its surroundings
temperature
the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment (corresponding to its molecular activity)
thermodynamic
caused or operated by heat that has changed into a different form of energy
third law of thermodynamics
law stating that the entropy of a substance approaches zero as its temperature approaches absolute zero
work, w
(physics) a manifestation of energy EX. the transfer of energy from one physical system to another expressed as the product of a force and the distance through which it moves a body in the direction of that force; "work equals force times distance
endothermic, ?H ? 0?
?H > 0; H(prod.) > H(react.)
exothermic, ?H ? 0?
?H < 0; H(prod.) < H(react.)
if w > 0, then...
...q > 0.
if w < 0, then...
... q < 0.
third law of thermodynamic ? S = ?
S� = q?p � T
?S� = ?S�products ??S�reactants
first law of thermodynamics ? ?E = ?
? = q + w = q?p - P?V = ?H - P?V
second law of thermodynamics ? ?Suniv = ?
? = ?Ssys + ?Ssurr > 0 ? spontaneous
? = ?Ssys + ?Ssurr < 0 ? nonspontaneous
? = ?Ssys + ?Ssurr = 0 ? equilibrium
third law of thermodynamic ? S?
The entropy of a perfect crystalline substance is zero at absolute zero.
first law of thermodynamics ? ?E?
In any process, the total change in the energy of the system is equal to the sum of the heat absorbed and the work done system.
second law of thermodynamics ? ?Suniv?
The entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous process and remains unchanged in an equilibrium process.
?H of bonds breaking?
1) potential energy (enthalpy) increased
2) "strong" bond ? "weak" bond
? ?H > 0
?H of bonds forming?
1) potential energy (enthalpy) decreased
2) "weak" bond ? "strong" bond
? ?H < 0
?H ? bonds = ?
? = ?bond energy (reactants) ? ?bond energy (products)
? = total energy input ? total energy released
absolute zero
the lowest temperature theoretically attainable (at which the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules is minimal)
Avogardo's Law
the law that states that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules
equation for Avogardo's Law: ?
?: V1n1 = V2n2
Boyle's Law
the law that states that for a fixed amount of gas at a constant temperature, the volume of the gas increases as the pressure of the gas decreases and the volume of the gas decreases as the pressure of the gas increases
equation for Boyle's Law: ?
?: P1V1 = P2V2
Charles's Law
the law that states that for a fixed amount of gas at a constant pressure, the volume of the gas increases as the temperature of the gas increases and the volume of the gas decreases as the temperature of the gas decreases
equation for Charles's Law: ?
?: V1T1 = V2T2
combined gas law
the law that expresses the relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature of a fixed amount of gas
equation for combined gas Law: ?
?: (P1V1) � T1 = (P2V2) � T2
Dalton's Law for partial pressures
the law that states that the total pressure of a mixture of gasses is equal to the sum of the pressures of all the gases in the mixture
equation for Dalton's Law for partial pressures: ?
?: Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3...
derivation of Dalton's Law for partial pressures?
P(i) = [n(i)�n(total)] � P(total)
diffusion
the process by which molecules move from an area where they are more concentrated to an area where they are less concentrated
effusion
the process in which individual molecules flow through a hole without collisions between molecules
Gay-Lussac's Law
the law stating that the volumes of gases undergoing a reaction at constant pressure and temperature are in a simple ratio to each other and to that of the product
Graham's Law of Effusion
the law stating that rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles
equation for Graham's Law of Effusion: ?
?: (r1�r2) = ?d1�?d1 = ?(molar mass 1 � molar mass 2)
equation for Gay-Lussac's Law: ?
?: P1T1 = P2T2
ideal gas law
the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas. It is a good approximation to the behavior of many gases under many conditions, although it has several limitations
equation for ideal gas law: ?
?: PV = nRT
universal gas constant, R
a physical constant which is featured in many fundamental equations in the physical sciences
R = ?
? = 8.31 L � atm/mol K
? = 8.31 L � kPa/mol K
? = 8.31 J/ mol K
molar mass = ?
? = gRT�PV
van der Waals: ?
?: (P + a�V^2)(V - b) = RT
?: (P + (n^2)a�V^2)(V - nb) = nRT
the role of "a" in?: "(P + a/V^2)(V - b) = RT" ?
corrects for the force of attraction between gas molecules
the role of "b" in: (P + a/V^2)(V - b) = RT"?
corrects for the particle volume
KMT:
Et = ?
? = m(u^2)�2 = cT
KMT:
c = ?
? = 3R�(2(6.022 E 22))
? = 3R�(2(Avogadro's number))
KMT:
u^2 = ?
? = 3RT�m(6.022 E 22)
? = 3RT�(molar mass)
amplitude, ?
the magnitude of change in the oscillating variable with each oscillation within an oscillating system
atomic radius
one-half the distance between the nuclei of identical atoms that are bonded together
atomic spectrum
The range of characteristic frequencies of electromagnetic radiation that are readily absorbed and emitted by an atom. The atomic spectrum is an effect of the quantized orbits of electrons around the atom
Balmer series
the designation of one of a set of six different named series describing the spectral line emissions of the hydrogen atom
Bohr Model
this format of the atom depicts the atom as a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus�similar in structure to the solar system, but with electrostatic forces providing attraction, rather
continuous spectrum
an emission spectrum that consists of a continuum of wavelengths
de Broglie relation
these show that the wavelength is inversely proportional to the momentum of a particle and is also called de Broglie wavelength. Also the frequency of matter waves, as deduced by de Broglie, is directly proportional to the particle's total energy, i.e. th
degenerate orbital
two or more different quantum states if they are all at the same energy level
wave-particle duality
postulates that all particles exhibit both wave and particle properties. A central concept of quantum mechanics, this duality addresses the inability of classical concepts like "particle" and "wave" to fully describe the behavior of quantum-scale objects
diamagnetism
the property of an object or material which causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition to an externally applied magnetic field
effective nuclear charge
the net positive charge experienced by an electron in a multi-electron atom. The term "effective" is used because the shielding effect of negatively charged electrons prevents higher orbital electrons from experiencing the full nuclear charge by the repel
electromagnetic radiation
a form of energy emitted and absorbed by charged particles, which exhibits wave-like behavior as it travels through space
electron affinity
of an atom or molecule is defined as the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule to form a negative ion
emission spectra
the spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the element's atoms or the compound's molecules when they are returned to a lower energy state
excited state
an elevation in energy level above an arbitrary baseline energy state. In physics there is a specific technical definition for energy level which is often associated with an atom being excited to an excited state
frequency, ?
the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time
ground state
its lowest-energy state; the energy of the ground state is known as the zero-point energy of the system
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
the principle that states a fundamental limit on the accuracy with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle, such as position and momentum, can be simultaneously known
isoelectronic
the description of two or more molecular entities (atoms, molecules, or ions) if they have the same number of electrons or a similar electron configuration AND the same structure (number and connectivity of atoms), regardless of the nature of the elements
line spectrum
the spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the element's atoms or the compound's molecules when they are returned to a lower energy state
paramagnetism
a form of magnetism whereby the paramagnetic material is only attracted when in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. The magnetic moment induced by the applied field is linear in the field strength and rather weak.
shielding effect
describes the decrease in attraction between an electron and the nucleus in any atom with more than one electron shell
Schr�dinger equation
an equation that describes how the quantum state of a physical system changes with time
valence electron
the electrons of an atom that can participate in the formation of chemical bonds with other atoms
wave function
a probability amplitude in quantum mechanics describing the quantum state of a particle and how it behaves
wavelength, ?
the spatial period of the wave�the distance over which the wave's shape repeats
Postulate of the Quantum Theory (3)
1) Atoms and molecules can only exist in discrete states, characterized by definite amounts of energy. When an atom or molecule changes state, it absorbs or emit just enough energy to bring it to another state
2) When atoms or molecules absorb or emit lig
Planck's constant, h = ?
? = 6.626 E -34 Js/particle
? = 6.626 E -27 erg(sec)
speed of light, c = ?
? = 2.998 E 10 cm/sec
?E = ?
? = [1.196 E 5 kJ(nm)]�?(mole)
? = hc�? = hv = -R(H [n1^-2 - n2^-2] )
E = ?
? = -1312 kJ�[(n^2)/mole]
? = h? = mc^2
? = 2.18 E -11 erg�n^2
? = (Zeff/n^2)1312 kJ/mol
Effective Nuclear CHarge, Zeff = ?
? = Z - ?
? = actual nuclear charge - shielding constant
Rydberg-Ritz equation
the equation used in atomic physics to describe the wavelengths of spectral lines of many chemical elements
Rydberg-Ritz equation, En = ?
? =-R(H)(n^-2)
R(H) = ?
? = 2.18 E -18 J
? = 109, 737/ cm
electron configuration: chromium
4s1,3d5
electron configuration:
copper
4s1, 3d10
electron configuration:
molybdenum
5s1, 4d10
electron configuration:
silver
5s1, 4d10
electron configuration:
gold
6s1, 4f14, 5d10
flame test color = blue
Pb, Se, CuCl2, CuBr2, As, PO4, B2O3, Cs
flame test color = green
CuX, CuBr2, As, Pb, Sb, Th, Te, Ba, SbX, NH4X, Zn
flame test color = red
LiX, CaX, SrX
flame test color = violet
KX, silicates, phosphates, borates, Rb, Cs
flame test color = yellow
Na
ion color = colorless
Ag+, Cd+, Hg2+, Zn2+
ion color = pink
Co2+, Mn2+
ion color = yellow
CrO4(^2-)
ion color = orange
Cr2O7(^2-)
antibonding orbital
a form of molecular orbital (MO) that is located outside the region of two distinct nuclei. The overlap of the constituent atomic orbitals is said to be out of phase, and as such the electrons present in each antibonding orbital are repulsive and act to d
bond energy
the heat required to break one Mole (unit) of molecules into their individual atoms
bond order
the number of chemical bonds between a pair of atoms
bond polarity
refers to a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups having an electric dipole or multipole moment
coordinate covalent bond, dipolar bond
a kind of 2-centre, 2-electron covalent bond in which the two electrons derive from the same atom. Typically, formed when a Lewis base donates a pair of electrons to a Lewis acid.
delocalization
when electrons in a molecule, ion or solid metal are not associated with a single atom or one covalent bond
pi bonding
a covalent bond where two lobes of one involved atomic orbital overlap two lobes of the other involved atomic orbital. These orbitals share a nodal plane which passes through both of the involved nuclei
diagonal relationship
said to exist between certain pairs of diagonally adjacent elements in the second and third periods of the periodic table and exhibit similar properties
dipole moment
the product of magnitude of charge & distance of separation between the charges
Electric dipole moment
a measure of the separation of positive and negative electrical charges in a system of charges, that is, a measure of the charge system's overall polarity
Bond dipole moment
uses the idea of electric dipole moment to measure the polarity of a chemical bond within a molecule. It occurs anytime there is a separation of positive and negative charges. (+? � ?-)
electron affinity
defined as the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule to form a negative ion
hypervalency
a molecule that contains one or more main group elements formally bearing more than eight electrons in their valence shells. a central atom of a molecule bears more than eight valence electrons
formal charge
the charge assigned to an atom in a molecule, assuming that electrons in a chemical bond are shared equally between atoms, regardless of relative electronegativity
equation for formal charge = ?
? = (# of valence electrons) - (# of non-bonding valence electrons) - [(total number of electrons shared in covalent bonds with other atoms in the molecule)/2]
? = V - N - (B/2)
hybridization
the concept of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals suitable for the qualitative description of atomic bonding properties
hydrogen bonding
the attractive interaction of a hydrogen atom with an electronegative atom, such as nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine, that comes from another molecule or chemical group
interatomic forces
as atoms approach one-another, is the # of forces at work; 1. repulsion of one nucleus for another, 2. repulsion of electrons from other electrons, 3. attraction of electrons to nuclei; potential energy decreases as attractive forces dominate over repulsi
intermolecular forces
Attractive and repulsive forces between molecules that are weaker than forces within molecules.
intramolecular forces
the forces that bond atoms together whithin a molecule (e.g. covalent bonds)
shortcomings of the Localized Electron Model?
1. Electrons are not actually localized
2. Does not deal effectively with molecules containing unpaired electrons
3. Gives no direct information about bond energies
sp2 hybridization
1. Trigonal planar structure
2. sp2 hybridization creates 3 identical orbitals of intermediate energy and length and leaves one unhybridized p orbital
3. 3 effective pairs of electrons surround the carbon (double bond treated
as one effective pair)
Sigma bond (? bond)
a type of sp2 hybridization in which the electron pair is shared in an area centered on a line running between the atoms
- Lobes of bonding orbital point toward
each other
Pi bonds (? bonds)
a type of sp2 hybridization in which an electron pair is above and below the ?
bond, and is created by overlapping of
nonhybridized
Double bond
a type of sp2 hybridization in which both ? and ? bonds present
sp hybridization
a type of bonding where the 2s orbital mixes with only one of the three p-orbitals resulting in two sp orbitals and two remaining unchanged p orbitals
sp3d hybridization
a type of bonding in which five effective pairs around a central atom and has trigonal bypyramidal shape
sp3d2 hybridization
a type of bonding in which six effective pairs around a central atom and has an octahedral structure
larger bond order = ?
? = greater bond strength, greater bond energy, shorter bond length
smaller bond order = ?
? = smaller bond strength, smaller bond energy, longer bond length
ionic bonding
a type of bonding in which electrons are transferred between a metal and a nonmetal
Coulomb's Law
The relationship among electrical force, charges, and distance: The electrical force between two charges varies directly as the product of the charges and inversely as the square of the distance between them.
equation for Coulomb's Law: ?
?: E = 2.31 E 19 J nm (Q1Q2/r)
covalent bond
a type of bonding in which electrons are shared evenly by nuclei
greater electronegativity = ?
? = less covalent character and greater ionic character
lattice energy
The change in energy that takes place when separated gaseous ions
are packed together to form an ionic solid
equation for lattice energy = ?
? =k (Q1Q2/r)
octet rule
Elements carbon and beyond form stable molecules when they
are surrounded by eight electrons
how BF3 is an exception to the octet rule?
1. Note that the main element only has six electrons around it
2. the compound is electron deficient and acts as a Lewis acid (electron pair acceptor)
3. the main element often forms molecules that obey the octet rule
how SF6 is an exception to the octet rule?
1. Note that the main element has 12 electrons around it, exceeding the octet rule
2. the compound is very stable
3. the compound fills the 3s and 3p orbitals with 8 of the valence electrons, and places the other 4 in the higher energy 3d orbital
zero order rate law = ?
? = rate = k
first order rate law = ?
? = rate = k[A]
second order rate law = ?
? = rate = k[A]^2
integrated rate law for zero order rate law = ?
? = [A] = ?kt + [A]intial
integrated rate law for first order rate law = ?
? = ln[A] = ?kt + ln[A]intial
integrated rate law for second order rate law = ?
? = [A]^-1 = kt +[A]initial^-1
plot that produces a
straight line for a zero order rate law = ?
? = [A] versus time
plot that produces a
straight line for a first order rate law = ?
? = ln[A] versus t
plot that produces a
straight line for a second order rate law = ?
? = [A]^-1 versus t
slope = =k in which order reactions?
zero order
first order
slope, for second order reaction = ?
? = k
half life equation for a zero order reaction = ?
? =[A]/2k
half life equation for a first order reaction = ?
? = (0.693)/k
half life equation for second order reaction = ?
? = (k[A])^-1
solid (s)
a state of matter in which a rigid substance maintains a fixed and shape
liquid (l)
a state of matter in which a substance has a definite volume, yet maintains no specific shape
gas (g)
a state of matter in which a substance that maintains no fixed volume or shape, and is therefore highly compressible
distillation
a process used to separate dissolved solids from a liquid, which is boiled to produce a vapor that is then condensed into a liquid
filtration
a process that separates materials based on the size of their particles
chromatography
A technique that is used to separate the components of a mixture based on the tendency of each component to travel or be drawn across the surface of another material.
pure substance
a sample of matter, either a single element or a single compound, that has definite chemical and physical properties
element
any of the more than 100 known substances (of which 92 occur naturally) that cannot be separated into simpler substances and that singly or in combination constitute all matter
compound
a substance formed by chemical union of two or more elements or ingredients in definite proportion by weight
J.J. Thomson and the Electron
1. Determined the charge to mass ratio of the electron
2. Reasoned that all atoms must contain electrons
3. Reasoned that all atoms must contain positive charges
Robert Millikan and the Oil Drop
1. Oil drop experiments determined the charge on an electron
2. With charge information, and Thomson's charge/mass ratio, he
determined the mass of an electron (9.11 E -31 kg)
Antoine Lavoisier
discovered the role of oxygen in combustion, law of conservation of mass, first modern chemistry textbook
Joseph Proust
formulated the law of definite proportion (composition)
John Dalton
postulated the Atomic Theory, the law of multiple proportions
Joseph Gay-Lussac
credited with ombining volumes
of gases, existence of diatomic molecules
Electrolyte
A substance that when dissolved in water produces a solution that can
conduct an electric current
CH4 = ?
? = formula for methane
C2H6 = ?
? = formula for ethane
C3H8 = ?
? = formula for propane
C4H10 = ?
? = formula for butane
C5H12 = ?
? = formula for pentane
C6H14 = ?
? = formula for hexane
C7H16 = ?
? = formula for heptane
C8H18 = ?
? = formula for octane
CnH2n+2 = ?
? = general formula for hydrocarbon
R-OH" = ?
? = general formula for an organic alcohol
R-O-R" = ?
? = general formula for ether
O=C-H,R" = ?
? = general formula for aldehyde
O=C-R,R" = ?
? = general formula for ketone
O=C-R, OH" = ?
? = general formula for Carboxylic acid
O=C-R, R, O" = ?
? = general formula for ester
amphoteric
having characteristics of both an acid and a base and capable of reacting as either
alpha particle, ?
a positively charged particle that is the nucleus of the helium atom
beta particle, ?
a high-speed electron or positron emitted in the decay of a radioactive isotope
gamma particle, ?
high-energy electromagnetic waves emitted from
a nucleus as it changes from an excited state to a ground energy
state
positron
an elementary particle with positive charge (interaction of a positron and an electron results in annihilation)
electron capture
the process in which an inner orbital electron is captured by the nucleus of its own atom
annihilation
when an electron and a positron (the electron's anti-particle) collide. The result of the collision is the conversion of the electron and positron and the creation of gamma ray photons or, less often, other particles.
equation for the rate of decay of a radioactive reaction: ?
?: Rate = -?N�?t ? N
?: Rate = -?N/?t = kN
equation for the rate of decay of a first-order radioactive reaction: ?
?: ln[(N�N(initial)] = ?kt
nuclear fission
1. Splitting a heavy nucleus into two nuclei with smaller mass numbers
2. The mass of the products is less than the mass of the reactants. Missing
mass is converted to energy
chain reaction
A reaction in which the material that starts the reaction is also one of the products and can start another reaction
critical mass
The minimum amount of nuclide that provides the number of neutrons needed to sustain a chain reaction
equilibrium
The state where the concentrations of all reactants and products remain constant with time
2. All reactions carried out in a closed vessel will reach equilibrium
a. If little product is formed, equilibrium lies far to the left
b. If little reactant remain
static equilibrium
a type of equilibrium where:
1. No more reaction is taking place
2. All product molecules will remain product
3. All unused reactant molecules will remain unreacted
dynamic equilibrium
a type of equilibrium where:
1. Reactions continue to take place
2. Reactant molecules continue to be converted to product
3. Product continues to be converted to reactant (reverse reaction)
4. Forward and reverse reactions take place at the same rate at
states of equilibrium (3)?
1. Beginning: Only reactant molecules exist, so only reactant molecules may collide
2. Middle: As product concentration increases, collisions may take place that
lead to the reverse reaction
3. At equilibrium: Rates of forward and reverse reactions are id
equation for the Law of Mass Action given the reaction, aA + bB ? cC + dD : ?
?: Kc = ([C]^c)([D]^d) � ([A]^a)([B]^b)
Relationship between Kc and Kp given the reaction, aA + bB ? cC + dD: ?
?: Kp = Kc (RT)^([c+d] - [a+b])
Reactions with large equilibrium constants (K>>1)...
...go essentially to completion:
a. Equilibrium position is far to the right
b. Generally large, negative ?E
Reactions with small equilibrium
constants (K<<1)
...consist of mostly reactants:
a. Equilibrium position is far to the left
reaction quotient, Q
the ratio of the [products] to the [reactants] at any point during the reaction aside from equilibrium, where each reactant and product in the expression is raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient
If Q = K...
...The system is at equilibrium, no shift will occur
If Q > K...
...The system shifts to the left, consuming products and forming reactants to reach equilibrium
If Q < K...
...The system shifts to the right, consuming reactants and forming products until equilibrium is reached
Statement of Le Chatelier's Principle
If a change is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the position of the
equilibrium will shift in a direction that tends to reduce that change
Effect of an additional reactant/product on Le Chatlier's Principle = ?
? = If a reactant or product is added to a system at equilibrium, the system will shift away from the added component (it will attempt to "use up" the added component)
Effect of the removal of reactant/product on Le Chatlier's Principle = ?
? = If a reactant or product is removed from a system at equilibrium, the system will shift toward the removed component (it will attempt to "replace" the removed component)
Effect on Equilibrium, if an inert gas is added = ?
? = An inert gas increases the total pressure but has no effect on the concentrations or partial pressures of the reactants or products
Effect on Equilibrium, -V /+P = ?
? = reducing its own volume.
shift to the side with less mol(g)
Effect on Equilibrium, +V/-P = ?
? = the system responds by increasing its own volume.
shift to the side with more mol(g)
Effect on Equilibrium, +T = ?
? = increases the energy of the system. Le Chatelier's principle predicts that the system will shift in the direction that consumes the energy
instantaneous dipoles
the random movement of electrons can create a momentary nonsymmetrical distribution of charge even in nonpolar molecules
surface tension
the resistance of a liquid to an increase in its surface area
capillary action
1. Cohesive forces between liquid molecules
2. Adhesive forces between polar liquid molecules and polar bonds in the
material making up the container
a. Water's adhesive forces are greater than its cohesive forces, thus
the increase in surface area (conca
Viscosity
Measure of a liquid's resistance to flow
a. Viscosity increases with intermolecular forces
b. Viscosity increase with molecular size
Crystalline solids
Highly regular arrangement of components
b. Components organized in a three-dimensional lattice
(1) Smallest repeating unit of the lattice is a unit cell
Amorphous solid
Components "frozen in place" and lacking orderly arrangement
equation for Bragg's Law: ?
?: xy + yz = n? = 2d(sin?) = nl = 2d sin q
diffractometer
a computerized device to rotate crystal samples in an x-ray field, gather
incidence and reflection data, and construct models of crystal
structure
ionic solid
a type of crystalline solid in which ions occupy lattice points
molecular solid
a type of crystalline solid in which discrete covalent molecules occupy lattice points
Clausius-Clapeyron equation
an equation that relates the change in the vapor pressure of a liquid to to the change in its temperature and its molar heat of vaporization.
Clausius-Clapeyron equation :?
?: ln(k1/k2) = (Ea/R)[(1/T2)-(1/T1)]
Sublimation
(chemistry) a change directly from the solid to the gaseous state without becoming liquid
Reasons for sublimation?
1) Solids have vapor pressure, but it is normally very low
2.) Solids with little intermolecular attraction may have substantial vapor
pressures and be able to sublime at room conditions
Normal melting point
The temperature at which the solid and liquid states have the same
vapor pressure under conditions where the total pressure is 1 atm
Normal boiling point
The temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is exactly 1
atmosphere
supercooling
Rapid cooling of a liquid may allow it to exist as a liquid at
temperatures below its normal melting point:
(1) quick temperature change does not allow time for molecules to
become organized as they must be to become solids
(2) When crystallization does b
Superheating
Rapid heating of a liquid may allow it to exist as a liquid at
temperatures above the normal boiling point
(1) not enough high energy molecules accumulate in one place to
form bubbles
(2) when bubbles do form, they tend to be very large
(3) superheating c
Triple Point
the temperature and pressure conditions at which the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of a substance coexist at equilibrium
critical temperature
the temperature above which a substance cannot exist in the liquid state
critical pressure
the lowest pressure at which a substance can exist as a liquid at the critical temperature
critical point
the temperature and pressure at which the gas and liquid states of a substance become identical and form one phase
Henry's Law
The amount of a gas dissolved in a solution is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the solution
equation for Henry's Law:?
?: P = kC
(1) P = partial pressure of the gaseous solute above the solution
(2) C = concentration of the dissolved gas
(3) k = constant characteristic of a particular solution
Raoult's Law
The vapor pressure of solution is the product of the mole fraction of the solvent and the vapor pressure of the pure solvent. P_a=X_aP_total
colligative property
a property of a substance or system that is determined by the number of particles present in the system but independent of the properties of the particles themselves
Boiling-Point Elevation
Nonvolatile solutes elevate the boiling point of the solvent b solute
?T = Kb m(solute)
a. ?T is the boiling point elevation
b. Kb is the molal boiling point elevation constant of the solvent
c. m(solute) is the molality of the solute in the solution
Freezing-Point Depression
Solutes depress the freezing point of the solvent solute
?T = Kf m(solute)
a. ?T is the freezing point depression
b. Kf is the molal freezing point depression constant of the solvent
c. msolute is the molality of the solute in the solution
Osmosis
the flow of solvent molecules into a solution through a semipermeable
membrane
Osmotic Pressure
The pressure necessary to keep water from flowing across a semipermeable
membrane
2. Osmotic pressure can be used to characterize solutions and determine
molar masses
? = MRT
Dialysis
the transfer of solvent molecules as well as small solute molecules and ions
Isotonic Solutions
solutions that have the same pressure necessary to keep water from flowing across a semipermeable membrane
Crenation
Cells placed in a hypertonic solution lose water to the solution, and
shrink
Hemolysis
Cells placed in a hypotonic solution gain water from the solution and swell, possibly bursting
van't Hoff factor, i = ?
? = (moles of particles in solution) / (moles of solute dissolved)
Boiling-elevation and freezing-point depression, in relation to "i": ?
?: ?T = imK
osmotic pressure, in relation to "i": ?
?: ? = iMRT
suspension
a mixture in which fine particles are suspended in a fluid where they are supported by buoyancy
colloid
a mixture with properties between those of a solution and fine suspension
Tyndall Effect
the phenomenon in which light is scattered by very small particles in its path
(it makes a beam of light visible; the scattered light is mainly blue)
reaction mechanism
A series of elementary steps that must satisfy two requirements
a. The sum of the elementary steps must give the overall balanced equation for the reaction
b. The mechanism must agree with the experimentally determined rate law
intermediates
A species that is neither a reactant nor a product, but that is formed and consumed during a chemical reaction
Elementary steps
Reactions whose rate law can be written from their molecularity (balanced eqn for the step)
Molecularity
The number of species that must collide to produce the reaction indicated by that step
Uni/bimolecular step
a reaction involving one/two molecule/s
Termolecular step
a reaction involving the collisions of three species
The Slowest Step in a Reaction Series = ?
? = rate determining step
Activation Energy
The energy required to convert atoms or molecules into the activated complex (transition state). The minimum energy required for an effective collision
Arrhenius Equation
ln K = - (E? / R) (1/T) + ln A [Similar to y = mx + b] [A = constant that takes into account collision frequency / orientation]
catalyst
(chemistry) a substance that initiates or accelerates a chemical reaction without itself being affected
Effects of Catalysis (3)?
1. Catalysts lower activation energy but do not change DE for the reaction
2. Catalysts provide alternate reaction pathways
3. Catalysis results in a higher percentage of effective collisions
heterogenous catalyst
a catalyst whose phase is different from the reactants'
Steps of Heterogeneous Catalysis (4)?
a. Absorption (collection of one substance on the surface of another substance) and activation of the reactants
b. Migration of the adsorbed reactants on the surface
c. Reaction of the adsorbed substances
d. Escape, or desorption, of the products
homogenous catalyst
a catalyst that exists in the same phase as the reactants, usually liquid or gas
arrhenius base
produce hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions
arrhenius acid
produce hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions
Bronsted-Lowry acid
substances that are proton donors in aqueous solutions
Bronsted-Lowry base
substances that are proton acceptors in aqueous solutions
Lewis acid
substances that accept electron pairs in aqueous solutions
Lewis base
substances that donate electron pairs in aqueous solutions
buffer
a type of solution contain relatively large concentrations of a weak acid and
the corresponding weak base. They can involve a weak acid HA and the
conjugate base A- or a weak base and the conjugate acid BH+
Titration
The controlled addition of a solution of known concentration (the titrant) in
order to determine the concentration of a solution of unknown concentration
Equivalence Point
The point in a titration at which the reaction between titrant and unknown has just been completed.
Indicator
A substance which undergoes a color change in the pH interval of the
equivalence point
Titration Curve
Plotting of the pH of the solution as a function of the volume of titrant
added
Ksp
the equilibrium constant for the reaction by which a slightly soluble ionic solid dissolves in water
Common Ion Effect
The solubility of a solid is lowered if the solution already contains ions
common to the solid
Selective Precipitation
Mixtures of metal ions in aqueous solution are often separated by using a
reagent whose anion forms a precipitate with only one or a few of the metal
ions in the mixture
Entropy, S
A measure of the randomness or disorder; a thermodynamic function describing the number of arrangements that are available to a system
Positional Entropy
The probability of occurrence of a particular state depends on the number of
ways (microstates) in which that arrangement can be achieved
Ssolid < Sliquid << Sgas
Corrosion
a state of deterioration in metals caused by oxidation or chemical action
Electrolysis
Forcing a current through a cell to produce change for which the cell
potential is negative
Electroplating
Depositing neutral metal atoms on the electrode by reducing the metal ions
in solution.
dipole-induced dipole
between polar and non polar molecues; rank by change in EN and also if N-H, O-H, or F-H rank according to h-bonding
enzyme
any of several complex proteins that are produced by cells and act as catalysts in specific biochemical reactions
steric factor
ratio between the experimental rate constant and the one predicted by collision theory
acidic oxide
a covalent oxide that dissolves in water to give an acidic solution
autoionization
the process whereby water spontaneously forms low concetration of h+ and OH- ions and protons transfer from one water molecule to another
strong acid
an acid that completely dissociates to produce an H+ ion and the conjugate base
strong base
a base that dissociates entirely into metal ions and hydroxide ions in aqueous solution
oxyacid
an acid that is a compound of hydrogen, oxygen, and a third element, usually a nonmetal
salt hydrolysis
a process in which the cations or anions of a dissociated salt accept hydrogen ions from water or donate hydrogen ions to water
cathode
the positively charged terminal of a voltaic cell or storage battery that supplies current
anode
the negatively charged terminal of a voltaic cell or storage battery that supplies current
salt bridge
an inverted, u shaped tube containing a strong electrolyte that connects the two half cells allowing a flow of ions that neutralizes the charge build up
galvanic cell
an electric cell that generates an electromotive force by an irreversible conversion of chemical to electrical energy
faraday
He was a scientist who established electromagnetic induction, a primitive generator, and the foundation for electricity
electromotive force
the rate at which energy is drawn from a source that produces a flow of electricity in a circuit
coulomb
a unit of electrical charge equal to the amount of charge transferred by a current of 1 ampere in 1 second
oxidizing agent
The electron acceptor in a redox reaction
redox titration
The quantitative analysis of the amount or concentration of an oxidizing or reducing agent in a sample by observing its reaction with a known amount or concentration of a reducing or oxidizing agent.
alkane
a non-aromatic saturated hydrocarbon with the general formula CnH(2n+2)
alkene
any unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbon that consists of at least one carbon to carbon double bond
aromatic hydrocarbon
a hydrocarbon that contains one or more benzene rings that are characteristic of the benzene series of organic compounds
aryl group
a group derived from an arene by removal of an H atom from an arene and given the symbol Ar-
dimer
a compound whose molecules are composed of two identical monomers
alkyne
a colorless flammable gas used chiefly in welding and in organic synthesis with C?C
chiral center
an atom with substituents arranged so that the molecule is not superimposable on its mirror image
O=C-R, O, H" = ?
? = general formula for an organic acid
cycloalkane
alkane (beginning with propane) in which carbon atoms form a ring; general formula CnH2n
enantiomer
either one of a pair of compounds (crystals or molecules) that are mirror images on each other but are not identical
free radical
an atom or group of atoms with at least one unpaired electron (EX. in the body it is usually an oxygen molecule than has lost an electron and will stabilize itself by stealing an electron from a nearby molecule; "in the body free radicals are high-energy
functional isomer
organic compounds with the same formula, but with the nonhydrocarbon part of the molecule bonded in different ways
isomer
a compound that exists in forms having different arrangements of atoms but the same molecular weight
geometric isomer
one of several compounds that have the same molecular formula and covalent arrangements but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms owing to the inflexibility of double bonds.
positional isomer
two or more molecules having the same formula but having functional group in different positions on the parent chain
structural isomer
one of several compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.
optical isomer
a molecule that shares the same molecular formula as another molecule but differs in the arrangement of atoms or groups around a carbon atom; left-handed or right-handed form of a molecule
ketone
any of a class of organic compounds having a carbonyl group linked to a carbon atom in each of two hydrocarbon radicals
R-S-H" = ?
? = general formula for thiol
binding energy
the energy required to separate particles from a molecule or atom or nucleus, defined by the equation:
E = mc�. m = mass defect, c = speed of light in a vacuum
decay series
a series of radioactive nuclides produced by successive radioactive decay until a stable nuclide is reached
zone of stability
the area encompassing the stable nuclides on a plot of their positions as a function of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus
transmutation
(physics) the change of one chemical element into another (as by nuclear decay or radioactive bombardment)
nucleon
a constituent (proton or neutron) of an atomic nucleus
mass defect
the amount by which the mass of an atomic nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of its constituent particles
geometry = AB2/ ABN/ ABN2/ ABN3/ AB2N3, name = ?
name = linear, geometry = ?
geometry = AB2N/ AB2N2, name = ?
name = bent, geometry = ?
geometry = AB3, name = ?
name = trigonal, geometry = ?
geometry = AB4, name = ?
name = tetrahedral/square planar, geometry = ?
geometry = AB3N, name = ?
name = trigonal pyramidal, geometry = ?
geometry = AB5, name = ?
name = trigonal bipyramidal, geometry = ?
geometry = AB4N, name = ?
name = seesaw, geometry = ?
geometry = AB3N2, name = ?
name = t-shape, geometry = ?
geometry = AB6, name = ?
name = octahedral, geometry = ?
geometry = AB5N, name = ?
name = square pyramidal, geometry = ?
geometry = AB4N2, name = ?
name = square planar, geometry = ?
geometry = AB2, name = ?
name = linear, geometry = ?
angle = 180; geometry = ?
geometry = AB2/ABN/AB2N (linear), AB2N3 (linear); angle = ?
angle = <120; geometry = ?
geometry = AB2N (bent); angle = ?
angle = 109.47; geometry = ?
geometry = AB4 (tetrahedral); angle = ?
angle = 90; geometry = ?
geometry = AB4 (square planar), AB6 (octahedral), AB4N2 (square planar); angle = ?
angle = <109.47; geometry = ?
geometry = AB3N (trigonal pyramidal), AB2N2 (bent) ; angle = ?
angle = 90, 120, 180; geometry = ?
geometry = AB5 (trigonal bipyramidal); angle = ?
angle = <90, <120, <180; geometry = ?
geometry = AB4N (seesaw); angle = ?
angle = <90, <180; geometry = ?
geometry = AB3N2 (T-shape); angle = ?
angle = <90; geometry = ?
geometry = AB5N (square pyramidal)