social understanding continues
to advance.
social understanding inicludes
knowing how best to interact with other people making and keeping good friends, responding to social slights and helping other effectvely and son on.
Context and Culture
are crucial
30yr in one place and time may think differently from another at different place and time.
Hinduism - a period of social embeddedness (requiring social understanding)
is thought to begin when people establish families of their own in early adulthood and to last through middle age.
New stage appears at which people are expected to be less engaged in
immediate social concerns.
Texting benefit
immediacy - (TSTB) the sooner the better.
- respond right away as they think it is rude to respond later.
delay discounting and TSTB
many emerging adults disregard the future cost of arrest in order to respond to texts without delay.
Talk about yourself
people grdually became less self-centered and less confused as they described themselves over the years of adulthood.
- not children or adolescents, achieved a level of self-acceptance at which emotions and reason were integrated.
Self- Descriptions by age group and category :
11-15: self-protective (lowest level) 75%
11-15: dysregulated 25%
15-20: self-protective 23%
dysregulated: 68%
integrated; 7%
20-30: self-protective ; 22%
dysregulated: 33%
integrated: 38%
complex: 7%
30-45: complex: 34%
integrated
dysregulated
self- prot
protective stage
high in self-involvement, low in self-doubt
dysregulated stage
fragmented, overwhelmed by emotions or problems.
complex stage
valutions and logic
integrated stage
able to regulate emotions and logic.
no one under age 20 was at the the advance
integrated stage , some adults of every age were.
The largest shift that occurred btrween addolescence and emerging adulthood
integrated stage
adult thinking
can be ordered interms of increasing levels of complexity and integration
many cholars find that thinking changes both
qualitatively and quatitatively during adulthood.
Term firth stage
adults can often do reach a new cognitive level when their brains and life circumstances allow it.
subjective thought
thinking that is strongly influenced by personal qualities of the individual thinker, such as past experiences, cultural assumptions and goals for the future.
objective thought
thinking that is not influenced by the thinker's personal qualities, but instead involves facts and numbers that are universally considered true and valid.
subjective thought arises
from personal experiences and perceptions.
objective thought
follow abstract, impersonal logic.
Formal operational thinking value
impersonal logic (such as on Piaget's balance scale, the mathematical relationship between weight and istance) and devalue subjective feeling, personl faith and emotional experience.
objective, logical thinking may be maladaptive
when dealing with the complexities and commitment s of daily life - especially for social understanding.
Subjective thinking is limited
truly mature thought involves an interaction between abstract, objective forms of processing and expressive, subjective forms, the dual processing .
Adult thought does not abandon objectivity; instead,
postformal logic combines subjectivity and objectivity.
Combining affect (emotion and cognition (logic) - it is crucial intellectual accomplishment of adulthood.
emerging adulthood - truly does emerge as a somewhat crucial period of the lif span.
Emerging adulthood is
comples, critical, relativizing thinking emerges onily int eh 20s. This is without intellect and emotion., behavioral extremes.
behavioral extremes
binge eating, anorexia, obesity, addiction, and violence
cognitive extremes
believing that one is the best or the worst person on the Earth
Laura's thinkg about alcohol is
postformal
it combines knowledge of alcohol poisoning with emotions (images of past experience flood her head).
Note she is cautious, not abstinent.
development of postformal thought regarding alcohol
early 20's are more likely than people of any other age to abuse alcohol and other drugs,
20 yr olds with experience and cognitive maturity - most adults drink occasionally and moderately from then on.
it is apparent that eenagers tend to use either objective or subjective reasoing, but adults can combine the two.
cognitive flexibility
the ability to be practical
to predcict, plan and combine objective and subjective mental processes
- it is possible for adults to reach the postformal lever. ( plans can go awry)
Chpt 18 Review: Developmentalist have used 3 approaches to explain cogntive development; the _______approach, the ______ approach, and the _________- ____________approach. In this chapter, Kathleen Berger emphasize the ____________approach.
stage; pscychometric; information-processing;stage
The stage approach dscribe ***** in the nature of thought.
The psychometric approach anyalzyes intelligence via IQ tests and other measures.
The information-processing approach studies encoding, storage,
2. Compared with adolescent thinking, adult thinking is more ______, _______ and ___________,
practical, flexible; dialectical
3. Reasoning that is adapted to the subjective real life contexts to which it is applied is called _________ ___________. It is characterized by problem _______, not just problem ___________. Emerging adults struggle with the problem of planning ahead, or
postformal thought; finding;solving;time management
The logical error in which people under value, or ignore, future consequences in favor of more immediate gratification is called ___________ ___________. Psychoactive drugs such as _______ and ________make this error ________ (more/less) likely.
delay discounting; alcohol; marijuana; more
Scholars ________(agree/do not agres) that there are stages of adult cognition. Several studies have found that adults _____________(do/do not) think in ways that adolescents ______(do/do not). One study found that although logical skills stay steady afte
do not agree; do ; do not; social understanding
Developmentalists distinquish between _______ ________thinking, which arises from the __________experiences and ____________of an individual, and __________thinking, which follows abstract ___________.
subjective; personal; perceptions; objective; logic
The difference between adolescent and young adult reasoning is particularly apparent for reasoning requiring the integration of _________ and __________.
emotion; logic
In contrast to adolescent inflexibility regarding personal experiences, adults are more likely to demonstrate _________ _______when suggesting solutions to real-life problems. One of the hallmarks of post-formal thought is the ability to find ________ ___
cognitive flexibility (or flexible problem solving); multiple solutions
This cognitive ability is crucial to countering _____________. Researcher have found that adults have become ______________(more/less)prejudiced about race. When there are possibility of being negatively sterotyped arouses emotions that disrupt cognition,
sterotypes; less; stereotype threat
Stereotype threat can make ________and ___________doubt their intellectual ability. As a result,they may become ______in academic contexts and perform below their __________. Research studies have shown that intellectual performance among students increas
women, minorities; anxious; potential; internalize
Some theorists consider _________________ __________ the most advanced form of cognition. This thinking recognizes that every idea, or __________, implies an opposing idea, or ______________; These are then forged into a _________of the two. This type of
dialectical thought; thesis ; antithesis; synthesis; dynamic; middle; emerging
Some researchers believe that some ________encourage flexible, dialectical reasoning more than others. According to this view, ancient _______philosophy has led Europeans to use __________ _________, whereas ____________ and __________have led Asians to t
cultures; greek; analytic logic; Confucianism; Taoism; dialectically
Concluding her comparison of postformal thinking with Piaget's cognitive stages, Lynn notes that
d. postformal thinking is characterized by
"problem finding." & formal operational thinking is characterized by "problem solving." & intuitive, postformal thinking is used when logical reasoning is too cumbersome.
Which of the following is an example of responding to a sterotype threat?
b. Feeling angered that others may think him less capable because of his ethnicity. Liam becomes flustered when trying to solve a problem in front of the class.
Dr. Polaski studies how thinking during adulthood is at a different level than that of adolescence. Evidently, Dr. Polaski follows the __________ approach to the study of development.
a. stage
b Psychometric: this approach analyzes components of intelligence such as those measures of IQ tests.
c. cognitive: Each of these approaches is cognitive in nature
d. information-processing:this approach studies the encoding, storage, and retriev
When she was younger, May-Ling believed that "Honesty is always the best policy," She now realizes that although honesty is desirable, it is not always the best policy. May-Ling's current thinking is an example of ______________thought.
b. dialectical
May-Lin has formed a synthesis between the thesis that honesty is the best policy and its antithesis
a. formal: this is an example of postformal rather than formal thinking
c&d. mythic-literal and conjunctive. These are stages in the develo
Research demonstrate that which of the following is effective in reducing stereotype threat among college students?
d. creating educational environments among students who have gender in common
- creating educational environments among students who have race in common
- interventions that help students internalize the concept that intelligence can change
(All of these
In concluding his paper on postformal thinking, Stanley notes that
a. postformal thinking is not the same kind of universal, age-related stage that Piaget described for earlier cognitive growth.
B. Because post-formal thinking is typical of adult thought, this is untrue (very few adults attain this highest stage of reaso
According to many reasearchers, moral reasoning and religious beliefs are affected by adult _____________, _____________and ________________. Research by one expert indicates that one catalyst for propelling young adults from a lower moral stage to a high
responsibilities,experiences; education; college
Carol Gilligan believes that in matters of moral reasoning, ______________(males/females) tend to be more concerned with the quesion of rights and justice, whereas _______________(males/females) are more concerned with personal relationship. In her view,
males ; females; care ; justice; does not ; culture
Other moral issues that contemporary adults are likely to confront arise from increasing ___________and advance ____________, including satellite videos, international music, and the __________.
globalization; communication; Internet
The current approach to research on moral reasoning is based on a series of questions about moral reasoning called the ________ _________ ___________. In general,scores on this test increase with _____________.
Defining Issues Test; age
The theorist who has outlined six stages in the development of faith is ___________
Jame Fowler
Identify and briefly describe each stage in the development of faith: Stage 1 - Stage 6.
1) Intuitive-projective faith is magical, illogical, filled with fantasy, and typical of children age 3 to 7 .
2) Mythic-literal faith, which is typical of middle childhood, is characterized by taking the myths and stories of religion literally.
3) Synthe
Although Fowler's stage theory of faith ________(is/is not) totally accepted, the idea that religion plays an important role in human development ________________(is/is not)
is not; is
Emerging adults are ______________(more/less)likely than older or younger people to attend religious services and to pray
less
Carol Gilliagn's research suggests that the individual who is most likely to allow the context of personal relationships to wholly determine moral decision is a
b. 20 yr old woman
a&c.(20 yr old man & 40 year old man) According to Gillian, males tend to be more concerned with human rights and justice than with human needs and personal relationships, which are more the concern of females.
d. (Gilligan does not dea
Jack's Uncle believes strongly in God but recognizes that other, equally moral people do not. The openness of his faith places him in which of Fowler's stages?
b. conjunctive faith
In Fowler's theory, at the highest stage of faith development, people incorporate into their lives a powerful vision of compassion for others. This stage is called
d. universalizing faith.
Cognitive Growth and higher Education
Compared with other adults, college graduates tend to be ________and _____. In terms of health behaviors, college graduates smoke _________(more/less), eat __________(better/worse), exercise _______________(more/less)
healthier; wealthier; less; better; more; longer; parents of healthy children
First yr. students often believe that there are clear and perfect truths to be found. This phase is followed by a wholesale questioning of personal and social values. Finally, a
William Perry found that the thinking of students, over the course of their college careers, progressed throught___________levels of complexity.
nine
Research has shown that the more years of higher education a person has, the deeper and more ____that person's reasoning is likely to become.
dialectical
Worldwide, the number of students who receive higher education _______(has increased/has not increased) since the first half of the twentieth century.
has increased
Collegiate populations have become _____________(more/less) diverse in recent years. College majors also are changing, with fewer students concentrating on the _____________ and more on _____ and the _______. The structure of higher education also ______(
more;liberal arts; bussiness;professions; has changed
(Table 18.3) In his scheme of cognitive and ethical development. Perry describes a position in which the college student says, "I see I'm going to have to make my own decisions in an uncertain world with no one to tell me I'm right. "This position marks t
c. relativism
1yr college students are more likely to believe this is so
c&d. over the course of their college careers, students become less likely to do either of these.
Research suggest that a college sophomore or junior is most likely to have reached a phase in which he or she
b. questions personal and social values, and even the idea of truth itself.
Who would be the most likely to agree with the statement, "college can be a powerful stimulus to cognitive growth"?
d. perry
Spike is in his 3rd yr at a private, religious liberal arts college, while his brother Lee is in his 3rd yr at a public, secular community college. In terms of their cognitive growth, what is the most likely outcome?
c. All other things being equal, spike an Lee will develop quite similarly.
In concluding her presentation on "The College Student of Today." Coretta states that
- The number of students in higher education has increased significantly in virtually every country worldwide.
- There are more low-income and ethnic-minority students today than ever before.
- There are more women and minority instructors than ever befor
Which of the following would be most helpful to know about a person in prediting whether the individual will go to college and graduate?
c. household income
PT1. 18 Chapter
1. Differences in the reasoning maturity of adolescents and young adults are most likely to be apparent when
d. emotionally charge issues are involved.
- low-SES and high-SES groups are compared.
- ethnic-minority adolescents and adults are compared
- ethnic-majority adolescents and adults are compared.:
socioeconomic status and tehnicity do not predict reasonin
2. Which of the following is NOT one of the major approaches to the study of adult cognition described in the text?
c. the systems approach
3. Compared with adolescent thinking, adult thinking tends to be
d. more flexible & more pratical & more dialectical.
4 A hallmark of mature adult thought is
b. the reconciliation of both objective and subjective approaches to real-life problems.
5. According to James Fowler, the experience of college often is a springboard to
c. individiual-reflective faith
Which approach to adult cognitive development focuses on life-span changes in the efficiency of encoding, storage,and retrieval?
b. information-processing
a. State: this approach emphasizes the emergence of a new stage of thinking that builds on the skills of formal operational thinking.
c. psychometric:This approach analyzes the measurable components of intelligence.
d. dialectica
Postformal thinking is most useful for solving ___problems
c. everyday
a,b,d: science, mathematics, abstract, logical: Because of its more analytical nature, formal thinking is most useful for solving these types of problems.
The term or the kind of thinking that involves the consideration of both poles of an idea and their reconciliation, or synthesis, in a new idea is
d. dialectical thinking.
a. subjective thinking: Thinking that is subjective relies on personal reflection rather than objective observation
b. postformal thought: Although dialectical thinking is characteristic of postformal thought, this question refers
9. Thesis is to antithesis as _____________is to ___________.
a. a new idea; an opposing idea
10. Which of the following adjective best describe cognitive development during adulthood.
a. multidirectional and dynamic
b&c linear & steady: . Comparatively speaking, linear and steady are more descriptive of childhood and adolescent cognitive development.
11. Which of the following most accurately describes postformal thought?
c. a form of logical that combines subjectivity and objectivity.
12. The Defining Issues Test is a
d. test that assesses the impact of life events on cognitive growth and moral reasoning.
13. According to Carol Gilligan
c. moral reasoning advances during adulthood in response to the more complex moral dilemma that life poses.
a.(in matters of moral reasoning, females tend to be more concerned with the question of rights and justice) in Gilligan's theory, this is more tru
14. College today have become
d. larger & more career oriented & diverse.
15. Research has revealed that a typical outcome of college education is that students become
c. more committed to a particular value.
Although they become more committed, they realize they need to remain open-minded.
Chpter 18: 1. Only 9 percent of low-income students have a bachelor's degree by age 24
T
2. Most people are ususally aware of their sterotypes.
F
People are often unaware of their sterotypes
3. After their early 20s, most adults are mature enough to know to drink alcohol in moderation.
T
4. Because they recognize the changing and subjective nature of beliefs and values, dialectical thinkers avoid making personal or intellectual commitments.
F
dialectical thinkers recognize the need to make commitments to values even thought these values will change over time.
5. The process of moral thinking improves with age.
T
6. In developed nations in 2010, almost one in two emerging adults earneds a degree.
T
7. Postformal thought is less absolute and less abstract than formal thought
T
8. Mythic-literal faith, like other "lower" stages in the development of faith, is not generally found past adolescence.
F
May adults remain in the "lower" stages of faith, which, like "higher" stages, allow for attaining strength and wholeness
9. Students who internalize that intelligence is plastic are less likely to experience sterotype threat.
T
10. Moral values are powerfully affected by circumstances.
T
11. Delay discounting occurs at every age.
T
Chapter 17: PT2: 1. The early 20s are the peak years for
d. hard physcial work & problem-free reproduction & athletic performance
2. Serial monogamy refers to the practice among sexually active adults of
b. having one steady partner at a time
3. The process of aging, or senescence, begins
d. as soon as full growth is reached
4. Maximum strength potential typically begins to decline by age:
a. 25
5. Normally, the average resting heart rate for both men and women
d. remains stable until late adulthood
6. During emerging adulthood, people follow patterns of development and behavior that vary by
d. age, culture and cohort
7. During emerging adulthood, many age differences in behavior and development.
a. result more from social factors than from biological ones.
8. Most people in the United states believe that the main purpose of sex is
b. to strengthen pair bonding.
9. A loss of interest of pleasure in most activities that lasts for two weeks or more is likely to be diagnosed as
d. major depression
a. social phobia is a fear of talking to people.
b. Depression is a mood disorder
c. Obsessive-compulsive disorder is an anxiety disorder.
10. The disorder characerized by disorganized thought, delusions, and hallucinations is
c. schizophrenia
a,b,d; post-traumatic stress disorder & anxiety disorder & obsessive-compulsive disorder: Post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder are anxiety disorders and do not have these symptoms.
11. Which of the following terms does not belong with the others?
d. major depression
Major depression is a mood disorder; the other disorders are all anxiety diorders.
The social norms approach refers to 12.
b. an approach to prevention that increases young adults' awareness of social norms for risky behavior.
c. the ratio between a person's weight and height: This the body mass index.
13. Professor Whelan believes that schizophreniz and other disoders are caused by the interaction from stress and an underlying biological, psychosocial, or sociocultural predispostion. This belief is the basis of which model?
a. diathesis-stress
(taught is chapter 18 - tested in chapter 17)
14. Rates of drug abuse, except when it involves alcohol use and cigarette smoking, often fall
c. over the years of adulthood
15. Occupations or activities that require a degree of risk or danger are referred to as
b. edgework
Matching Items: 1. senscence
g. age-related decline
2. homeostasis
e. a state of physiological equilibrium
3. organ reserve
d. extra capacity for responding to stressfull events
4. set point
j. the body weight that a person's homeostatic processes strive to maintain.
5. edgework
b. an occupation that requires a degree of risk
6. drug abuse
a. using a drug to the extent of impairing one's well-being
7. body mass index
h. the ratio of a person's weight divided by his or her height.
8. drug addiction
k. a condition in which the absence of a drug triggers withdrawal symptoms.
9. anorexia nervosa
i. a BMI below 18
10. obesity
f. a BMI above 30
(20 to 25) average
11. extreme sports
c. recreation that includes apparent risk of injury or death.
Key Terms: 1. emerging adulthood
is the period of life between the ages of 18 and 25.
2. senescence
is age-related gradual physical decline throughout the body.
3. homeostasis
refers to the process by which body functions are automatically adjusted to keep our physiological functioning in a state of balance.
4. organ reserve
is the extra capacity of each body organ for responding to unusually stressful events or conditions that demand intense or prolonged effort.
5. diathesis-stress model
is the view that mental disorders are caused by the interaction of a genetic vulnerability with stressful environmental factors and life events.
6. hikikomori
is a japanese word meaning "ull awa," referring to a common anxiety disorder in japan in which emerging adults refuse to leave their rooms for months or even years at a time.
7. set point
is the specific body weight that a person's homeostatic processes strive to maintain.
8.body mass index (BMI)
is the ratio of a person's weight in kilograms divided by his or her height in meters squared.
9. edgework
refers to recreational aactivities and occupations that entail some risk or danger.
10. extreme sports
are forms of recreation that include apparent risk of injury or death and are attractive and thrilling as a result.
11. drug abuse
is drug use to the exent of impairing the user's biological or psychological health.
12 drug addiction
is evident in a person when the absence of a drug in his or her body produces the drive to ingest more of the drug.
13. social norms approach
to reducing risky behaviors uses survey data regarding the prevalence of risky behaviors to make emerging adults more aware of social norms within their peer group.
Chapter 18 Progress Test 2: 1
Which approach to adult cognitive development emphasizes the analysis of components of intelligence?
b. psychometric
a. postformal: this approach emphasizes the possible emergence in adulthood of new stages of thinking that build on the skills of earlier stages.
c. information-processing:This approach studies the encoding, storage, and retrieveal of info
2. Which approach to adult cognitive development "picks up where Piaget left off"?
c. post formal
3. As adult thinking becomes more focused on occupational and interpersonal demands, it also become LESS inclined toward
a. inflexibility:
b&c. (dialectical thought & adaptive thought) During adulthood, thinking typically become more dialectical and adaptive
4. The result of dialectical thinking is a view that
b. life-span change is dynamic
a&c: On the contrary, a dialectic view recognizes the limitations of extreme relativism and that one's self evolves continuously.
5. The existence of a fifth, postformal stage of cognitive development during adulthood
c. remains controversial among developmental researchers.
6. Formal operational thinking is most useful for solving problems that
a. involve logical relationships or theoretical possiblities
b,c,d:(require integrative skills & involve the synthesis of diverse issues & require seeing perspectives other than one's own) Post formal thought is most useful for solving problems such as th
7. College seems to make people more accepting of other people's attitudes because it
b. promotes recognition of many perspectives.
The impact of college on self-esteem and extroversion were not discussed. Moreover, it is unclear how such an impact would make a person more accepting of others.
8. The goal of dialectical thinking is forging a (n) ____from oppoosing poles of an idea.
c. synthesis
a. A theiss is a new idea
b. An anthithes is an idea that opposes a particular thesis
d. hypothesis, which are testable predictions abouut behavior, are not an aspect of dialectical thinking.
9. Formal operational thinking is to postformal thinking as ______is to __________-.
b. adolescence : adulthood
10. According to James Fowler, which type of faith is typical of middle childhood?
b. mythic-literal
a. Intuitive-projective faith is typical of children ages 3 to 7
c&d. Synthetic-conventional faith and individual-reflective faith are more typical of adulthood.
11. According to James Fowler, individual-reflective faith is marked by
d. the beginnings of independent questioning of teachers and other figures of authority.
a. (a willingness to accept contradictions)This describes conjunctive faith
b. ( a burning need to enunciate universal values)This describes universalizing faith
c. (
12. Moral principles that judge right and wrong in absolute terms constitute a
b. morality of compassion
13. According to James Fowler, the simplest stage of faith is the stage of
b. intuitive-projective faith
14. Many of the problems of adult life are characerized by ambiguity, partial truths, and extenuating circumstances, and therefore are often best solved using ________thinking.
c. postformal
a. Formal thinking is best suited to solving problems that require logic and analytical thinking.
b&d: (reintegrative & executive) These terms are not discussed in the text
15. A classic study by Perry showed that the thinking of students in college progresses through how many levels of complexity?
b. 9
Key Terms: Writing Definitions
1. postformal thought
Proposed by some developmentalists as a fifth stage of cognitive development, postformal thought is suited to solving real-world problems and is more practical, more flexible, and more dialectical than adolescent thought.
2. delay discounting
is a logical error in which people under value, or ignore, future consequences in favor of more immediate gratification
3. subjective thought
is thinking that arises from our personal experiences and perceptions.
4. objective thought
is thinking that follows abstract, impersonal logic
5. stereotype threat
is the possiblility that ones' appearance or behavior may be misread to confirm another person's oversimplified, prejudiced attitude.
6. dialectical thought
is the most advanced cognitive process that involves considerig both poles of an idea (thesis and antithesis) simultaneously and then forging them into a synthesis.
7. thesis
The first stage of dialectical thinking, a thesis is aproposition or statement of belief.
8. antithesis
A statement that contradicts the thesis, antithesis is the second stage of dialectical thinking
9. synthesis
The final stage of dialectical thinking, the synthesis reconciles thesis and antithesis into a new more comprehensive level of truth.
10. morality of care
According to Carol Gilligan, women are raised to develop a morality of care: they give human needs and relationships highest priority.
11. morality of justice
According to Carol Gilligan, men are raised to develop a morality of justice; their emphasis on distingishing right from wrong.
12. Defining Issues Test
The DIT is a seris of questions developed by James Rest about moral dilemmas used to assess moral reasoning.
Cross Check: 1. Stage of faith in which a person has a powerful vision of compassion, justice,and love that applies to all people.
universalizing
7. The final stage of dialectical thinking
synthesis
8. A proposition or statement of belief
thesis
13. Theorist who believes that as their life experiences expand, both males and famales broaden their moral perspecitves.
Gilligan
15. Types of thinking that arises from the personal experiences and perceptions of an individual
subjective
Down; 2. Faith that is magical, illogical, imaginative, and filled with fantasy.
intuitive-projective
3. Thinking that involves consideration of both poles of an idea simultaneously.
dialectical
4. Theorist who delineated six stage of faith
Fowler
5. Thinking that is suited to solving real world problems and is less abstract, less absolute, and more integrative and synthestic than formal thought.
postformal
6. Test of moral reasoning that consists of a series of question about moral dilemmas
Defining Issues
9. Approach to adult congition that analyzes components of intelligence such as those measured by IQ tests.
psychometric
10. Second stage of dialectical thinking
antithesis
11. Thinking that follows abstract, impersonal logic.
objective
12. During early adulthood, the experience that deepens thinking and leads people to become more tolerant of view that differ from their own.
college
Theorist who described the progressive changes in thinking during the college years.
Perry
Chronological age
is an imperfect boundary in adulthood. That is why they use 3 main research tradtions : stage approach; psychometric approach; information-processing approach.
Chapter 18: focuses on
postformal thought
Chapter 21: focuses on
psychometrics
- age related, education
Chapter 24: focuses on
information processing
- including wisdom and demetia
Thinking in adulthood different from earlier thinking in 3 major ways
more practical
more flexible
more dialectical
5th stage of cognitive development is the 3 major ways of thinking
This occurs gradually - no particular yr or decade - normally in emerging adulthood that a person first develops the ability to think this way.
Postformal thought
a stage of cognitive development, following Piage'ts four stages, that goes beyond adolescent thining by being more practical, more flexible, and more dialtectical (that is, more capable of combining contradictory elements into a comprehensive whole)
5th stage of formal operations
includes necessary subjectivity along with the 3 major ways of thinking: Practical, more flexible and more dialectical
p. 492: postformal thought:
originated because several developmentalists agreed that Piaget's fourth stage of formal operational thought was inadequate to describe adult thinking - geve us 5th stage
5th stage
problem finding - not just wherein a person is more open to ideas and less concerned with absolute right and wrong.
postformal thought
one can conceive of multiple logics, choices, or perceptions,. .. in order to better understand the complexitries inherent biases in truth.
postformal thinkier do not wait for someone else to present a problem to solve,
they take more fleible and comprehensive approach instead, - with consdieration of dealing with them rather than denying, avoiding,, or procrastinating. As a result, postformal thought is more practical as well as more creative and imaginative htan is tho
chpt 15; adolescents use 2 odes of though
dual processing, but combining them is difficult.
They may use formal analysis to distil universal truths, develop arguments, and resolve the world's problems or they may
think spontaneously and emotionally, but they do not combine the two.
adolescent may join demonstration against genocide in Darfur
but may forget to prepare for a chemistry test.
formal analysis
to distill univversal truths, develop arguments, and resolve the worls problme.
Teenagers have difficulty
setting prioritities.
They prefer quick responses. The can analyze, but they may not anticipate the consequences of their actions.
Time mangement: postformal and formal thinking is to
understand how adolescents and adults think in terms of time.
intellectual skills are harnessed to real educational, occupational, and interpersonal concern
adulthood,
conclusions and consequences matters:
setting priority includes postponing some tasks in order to accomplish others.
adolescence have difficulty (emerging adults)
time management
adults gradually master
time management as their cognition matures
devoloping postformal thought process of adults
accept and adapt to the contradiction and inconsistances of veryday experience --
personality changes - less playful and more practical.
provisional (life's answers)
adults.
- they don't believe life answers to be permanent; they take irrational and emotional factors into account .
Teenager might ignore what needs to be done until needed.
emerging adults usually know better.
delay discounting:
The tendency to undervalue, or downright ignore, future consequences and rewards in favor of more immediate gratification.
if offered $100 now or $110 later
people will ususally engage in delay discounthing -- taking it immediately
taking lottery winners for example - they will take it all now rather than in increment payments getting all of the money.
Adolescents underestimate
delayed consequences, bu tgradually over the years of early adulthood, as the prefrontal cortex matures - people become better able to plan ahead.
Reflection is characteristic of
adult postformal thought.
This delay discounting explains
why 18 yrs olds use of drugs with knowledge of the consequence.
Really a stage?
May scholars doubt Piaget's stage theory of child congition
many more question this fifth stage.
stage
means attaining a new set of intellectual abilites
(such as the language explsion that distinquishes sensorimotor from preoperational thought)
prefrontal cortex is not fully mature until
early 20s
new dendrites connect in adulthood.
prefrontal cortex - connected to
social understanding.
study 13 to 45yrs - found
logical skills improved from adolescence to emerging adulthood - then stayed steady, as might be expected as formal operational thinking becoms well established.
Corporate restructuring might require finding another job, a failing of birth control - might mean unwanted pregnancy,
a parent's illness might requirer changing plans for higher education.
- most adults go through something like this.
Cognitive flexibility
they avoid retreating into either emotions or intellect.
Adult diven COMPLEX problem with no pat solution
reflects their options
- landlord not paying for expensive repairs. What do you do.
postformal cognition (HALLMARK)
is intellectual flexibility -
- a characteristic far more typical of emerging adults than of younger people.
Fundimental lux of emerging adulthood
comes from the realization that each person's perspective is only one of many, that each problem has may solution and that knowledge is dynamic, not static.
sing of flexibility
is listening to others
Working together to solve a problem
cognitive flexibility
Alternate solutions
adults vs. children ;
adults: analyze - post formal thinker
children; cannot.- concrete or formal operational thinker
More familiar the probleem
the more possibilites were suggestd.
losing motivation to finish a college deggreee eveoked
more solutions from younger aduls, but wanting relatives to visit more frequently got more solutions from old adults.
Problem-solving abilites of adults of various ages
concludes that emerging adults are better problem solvers than both adolescents and oldest adults
Openness to new ideas
emerging adults and of post formal thinkers.
The ability to find mutliple solutions to any practical problem is a
HALLMARK of Post formal thought.
cognitive flexibility, and experience helps
Individuals differ in
Countering Sterotypes
Cognitive flexibility,
ability to change childhood assumpitons is needed to counter sterotypes.
traditional norms
become later parents than previous generation (couple by couple)
Early experiences for postformal thinkers
are not determinative.
sterotypes about other people: racial prejudice in adulhood
many american children and adults harbor some implicit bias agains African Americans,
-shown by slower processing time than European pictures.
US believe that they are
not racially prejudiced.
- behavior shows not bias.
steroetype.
the possibility that one's appearance or behavior will be misread to confirm another person's oversimplified, prejudiced attitudes.
The threat of Bias
if students fear that others expect them to do porrly inschool because of their ethnicity or ender, they might not identify with academic achievement and thus do worse on exams than they otherwise would have.
Sterotype threat
people are often unaware oftheir own sterotypes,
even when false beliefs harm them .
most PERNICIOUS stereotyp threat
worry that other people assume that you yourself are stupid, lazy, oversexed or eworse
becuase of your race,sex,a ge or appearance.
possiblity of being negatvely sterotyped arouses emotions
that can disrupt cognition as well as emotional regulation
Sterotype threat
is likely when circumstances remind a person of a possible threat .
possible threat
in the air
not an overt threat.
- ie. african males think they are poor scholars.
- decreases ability to focus on academis.
underachieve
might disidentify academic success in order to protect their pride (stereotype - non overt threat`)
can cause disengagement from studying and lead to lower achievement
woman under achieve in math , older foks forgetful,
bilingual student stumble with Englis,
stigmatized minority in every nation perform less well.
Even if there is thought to be on top.
prejudices relate to
postformal thought
childhood sterotypes hidden in the breain,
adults need flexible cognition to overcome them
- abandoning the prejudices that were learned earlier.
many programs attempt to increase
the achievement of individual whose potential seems unrealized.
- woman colleges are best at this.
Could one reason be that if every student has the same background, sterotype threat is diminished?
...
What can reduce stereotype threat when students are aminority?
...
Internalize
believe whoeleartedly, not just intellectually
Plastic
The idea of intelligence is ploastic rather than the inalterable product of one's genetic heritage.
Personal efforts - if think it
made it happen
- it provided hope.
post formal thinking
allows people to overcome fears and anxieties.
79 Stanford undergraduates of both sexes - 42 african american and 37 European American :
Goal was to internalize a messge about intelligence.
Group I: no intervention
Group II: learned about mulitple intelligences
Group III: learned that intelligence depends on effort, not innate ability (brain maturity and neurons).
The intervention succeeded. Repeat test - but sterotype threat is pervasive an
dialectical thought
The most advanced cognitive process
dialectical thought
characterized by the ability to consider a thesis and its antithesis simultaneously and thus to arrive at a synthesis.
dialectical thought
makes possible an ongoing awareness of pros and cons, advantages and disadvantaes, possibilities and limitations.
FIRST state of PROCESS of Dialectical thinking
a proposition or statement of belief; the frist stage of the process of dialectical thinking.
SECOND Stage of Process of DIALECTICAL THINKING
antithesis: a proposition or staement of belief that opposes the thesis.
THIrD Sate of Process of Dialectical thinking
synthesis: a new idea that integrateds the thesis and its antithesis, thus representing a new and more comprehensive level of truth.
Dialectical thought
postformal thought, at its best becomes dialectical thought
Promise, not reality
with all aspects of post formal thinking, advanced thinkg at any point of adulthood.
Dialectical thought
involves considering both these poles of an idea simultaneously and then forging them into a sysnthesis.
synthesis
a new idea that integrates the original and its opposite.
- synthesis is not a compromise: it is a new concept that incorporates both original ones.
ie. young children idolize their parents (thesis) , many adolescents are highly critical of their parents
Dialectical thought
change is continuous.
each new SYNTHESIS
deepens and refines the thesis and antithesis that initiated it, with cognitive development as the dance of adaptive transformation".
Dialectical thought thinking involves
the constant integration of beliefs and experiences with all the contradictions and inconsistencies of daily life.
Vygotsky -
learning is a social interaction.
- within zone of proximal development.
Proximal development
with learners and mentors continually adjusting to each other.
Dialectical processes are
readily observeable by life-span researchers, who believe that "the occurrence and effective mastery of crises and confilcts represent not only risk,s, but also opportunities for new development
CHAPTER 1 emphasized - life-span change is
mulitdirectional, ongoing and often surprising - a dynamic dialectical process.
Dialectical thinker: thesis - antithesis - synthesis
I love you because you are perfect -- I hate you ; you can't do anything right -- neither of us i perfect, but togethe we can grow.
New demands, roles, responsibilites , conflicts
are learning opportunities for the dialectical thinker.
Adolescents are rare dialectical thinkers
Dialectical thinkers - found in middle-aged people & connected in complex and sometimes contradictory ways to ethinicity, intellect and creativity.
Degradation of Complex thinking (dilectical thinking)
can be caused by any emotionally charge events.
Culture and Dialecteics:
Asians - think holistically - seeking synthesis - -in place of logic- Chinese developed dilectic
ie> Western art tends to focus on objects;Chines are shows the entire context
Koreans in seoul
South Korea: Korean Americans who had lived most of their lives i the US
US born European Americans.
police officer charge of a case involving a student who murdered a professor -
Korean looked for a balance holistic syntehsis.
Western adults - happiest to achieve personal triumph
Chineses happiest - find a synthesis of several social roles.
Asian americ