structuralism
early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
functionalism
early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
William James and Mary Whiton Calkins
pioneered functionalism; "why does this happen?"; influenced by Darwin - thought traits developed because they were adaptive
Wilhelm Wundt
Wundt established the first psych lab at the University of Leipzig, Germany
Margaret Floy Washburn
first woman to receive a psych Ph.D., Washburn synthesized animal behavior research in "The Animal Mind
behaviorism
view that psych 1) should be an objective science that 2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. most research psychologists today agree with 1) but not 2)
humanistic psychology
rather than focus on Freudian psychology or behavioralism, should focus on the ways that current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth potential, and importance of having needs for love and acceptance satisfied
cognitive neuroscience
interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory and language); developed from structuralism and functionalism around same time as humanistic psychology
psychology
science of behavior and mental processes
nature-nurture issue
Plato believed in nature, Aristotle believed in nurture
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner
working with Rayner, Watson championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as "little Albert
B.F. Skinner
a leading behaviorist, Skinner rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior
Sigmund Freud
controversial ideas of this famed personality theorist and therapist have influenced humanity's self-understanding
natural selection
principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
levels of analysis
differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
biopsychosocial approach
integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and socio-cultural levels of analysis
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
counseling psychology
branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school,work, or relationships) and in achieving greater well-being
clinical psychology
branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
psychiatry
branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
positive psychology
scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
hindsight bias
tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it ("i knew it all along")
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
hypothesis
testable prediction, often implied by a theory
operational definition
statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. for example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as "what an intelligence test measures
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
case study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
random sample
sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
correlation
measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
correlation coefficient
statistical index of the relationship between two things (-1 to +1)
experiment
research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors
experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
double-blind procedure
experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are "blind" about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the patient thinking the pill works, not it actually working
independent variable
experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
confounding variable
factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
dependent variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
informed consent
giving potential participants enough info about a study to enable them to decide whether they wish to participate
debriefing
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. also sometimes referred to as a "retrieval practice effect" or "test-enhanced learning
SQ3R
study method incorporating five steps: survey, question, read, retrieve, review
Tichener
tried to discover the mind's structure through engaging subjects in intro-spection
psychology was first defined as _____
the science of mental life
behavioralism
developed from structuralism and functionalism
neuroscience perspective
how body and brain enable emotions, memories and sensory experiences (ex: study brain circuits that cause us to be "red in the face" when angry)
evolutionary perspective
how natural selection of traits has promoted survival of genes (ex: how anger facilitated in the survival of our ancestor's genes)
behavior genetics perspective
how our genes and our environment influence our individual differences (ex: how heredity and experience influence our individual differences in temp)
psychodynamic perspective
how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts (ex: might view outburst as an outlet for unconscious hostility)
behavioral perspective
how we learn observable responses (ex: would study how seeing our parents get mad affects us getting mad)
cognitive perspective
how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information (ex: might study what caused outburst and how we processed that)
social-cultural perspective
how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures (ex: would compare what an "angry outburst" looks like in different cultures)