anatomy
study of the structure of organs and body systems
physiology
study of the function of the organs and body systems
hierarchy of the structure of the human body (7- largest to smallest)
1. organism2. organ system3. organs4. tissues5. cells6. molecules7. atoms
4 basic tissue types found in humans
1. epithelial2. connective3. muscular4. nervous
epithelial tissue (epithelium) serves what two functions
1. provides covering (such as skin tissue)2. produces secretions (such as glandular tissue)
Epithelial tissue commonly exists in ____ and does not have its own ____ ____.
sheets; blood supply**epithelium is dependent on diffusion from the nearby capillaries for food and oxygen
Epithelial tissue can ____ ____ if well nourished.
regenerate easily
Epithelial tissues are classified according to two criteria:
1. number of cell layers2. cell shape* *squamous, cuboidal, columnar
Simple and stratified epithelial tissues vary in relation to ____ of ____ ____.
number, cell layers
Simple epithelium contains _1_ layer of cells. It is found in body structures where _2_, _3_, and _4_ occur.
1. one2. absorption3. secretion4. filtration
Stratified epithelium has more than one layer of cells and serves as ____.
protection
Connective tissue is found ____ the body; it serves to ____ different structures of the body.
throughout, connect
Connective tissue commonly has its own ____ ____; however, there are some types of connective tissue, such as ____, that do not.
blood supply, ligaments
4 examples of connective tissue
1. bone2. cartilage3. adipose (fat)4. blood vessel
Muscle tissue is dedicated to ____ ____.
producing movement
3 types of muscle tissue
1. skeletal 2. smooth3. cardiac
Skeletal muscle supports ____ movement.
voluntary
Smooth muscle is under _1_ control. It is found in the walls of hollow organs, such as _2_, _3_ ___, _4_, and _5_.
1. involuntary2. intestines3. blood vessels4. bladder5. uterus
Cardiac muscle movement is ____. Cardiac muscle is only found in the ____.
involuntary, heart
Nervous tissue provides the _1_ for the _2_, spinal cord, and _3_
1. structure2. brain3. nerves
Nerves are made up of specialized cells called ____ that send ____ impulses throughout the body.
neurons, electrical
Support cells, such as ____, help protect nervous tissue.
myelin
The circulatory system (also called the _1_ system) consists of the heart, _2_ ____ (e.g., arteries, veins, and arterioles), and _3_. It supports the _4_ and distribution of various substances throughout the body (oxygen, _5_, and _6_ from food are some of these substances).
1. cardiovascular2. blood vessels3. blood4. circulation5. hormones6. nutrients
Circulatory systems relationships with other organ systems
#NAME?
The digestive system consists of all the organs from the _1_ to the _2_ involved in the _3_ and _4_ or processing of food. The organs along this path include the _5_, _6_, _7_, and _8_ intestines, _9_, and _10_. The digestive system manufactures _11_ that breakdown food so that the _12_ can be easily passed into _13_ for use throughout the body. Any food that is not digested is expelled though the _14_. The absorption of nutrients actually occurs in the _15_ ____ which consists of the _16_, _17_, and _18_. After that, the _19_ removes _20_ from the waste that remains. Two other organs included in the the digestive system are the _21_ and _22_. The _23_ produces _24_ that helps break down fats, and the _25_ delivers enzymes to the small intestine that aid in digestion.
1. mouth2. anus3. ingestion4. breakdown5. esophagus6. stomach7. small8. large9. rectum10. anus11. enzymes12. nutrients13. blood14. anus15. small intestine16. duodenum17. jejunum18. ileum 19. colon20. water21. liver22. pancreas23. liver24. bile25. pancreas
Digestive systems relationship with other organ systems
increased skeletal muscle activity increases the motility of the gastrointestinal tract
The endocrine system serves to control _1_ ____. _2_ in the endocrine system secrete _3_ that travel through the blood to _4_ throughout the body. Glands such as the _5_, _6_, _7_, _8_, _9_, _10_, and _11_ regulate processes such as growth and metabolism. The _12_, _13_, and _14_ also have endocrine functions, even though they are part of other body systems.
1. body functions2. glands3. hormones4. organs5. pineal6. pituitary7. thalamus8. hypothalamus9. thyroid10. thymus11. adrenal12. pancreas13. testis14. ovaries
Endocrine systems relationships with other organ systems
#NAME?
The integumentary system consists of the _1_, _2_ ____, _3_, and _4_. It protects internal _5_ from injury, _6_ the body, and helps regulate body _7_. This system also serves as a barrier to _8_ (microorganisms capable of producing disease).
1. skin2. mucous membranes3. hair4. nails5. tissues6. waterproofs7. temperature8. pathogens
Integumentary systems relationship with other organ systems
#NAME?
The lymphatic system consists of _1_ ____, _2_ ____ that carry lymph (a clear fluid rich in antibodies), the _3_, the _4_, and the _5_, which are made of lymphoid tissue. It supports the _6_ system by housing and transporting _7_ blood cells to and from lymph nodes. The lymphatic system also returns fluid that has leaked from the _8_ system back into the _9_ ____.
1. lymph nodes2. lymph vessels3. spleen4. thymus5. tonsils6. immune7. white8. cardiovascular9. blood vessels
Lymphatic systems relationships with other organ systems
#NAME?
The muscular system consists of skeletal _1_, _2_ that connect _3_ to _4_, and _5_ that attach _6_ together to form joints. The _7_ and _8_ muscles are not included in this organ system.
1. muscles2. tendons3. muscles4. bones5. ligaments6. bones 7. cardiac8. smooth
Muscular systems relationship with other organ systems
#NAME?
The nervous system consists of the _1_, _2_ ____, and _3_, and it serves as the body's control system. _4_ ____ detect stimuli that can occur both inside and outside the body. The conduction of _5_ impulses along nerves is extremely _6_, making it possible for immediate _7_ responses to protect the body from threats. Once a threat is detected, the nervous system activates the appropriate _8_ or glands to respond.
1. brain2. spinal cord3. nerves4. sensory receptors5. nervous6. fast7. reflexive8. muscles
Nervous systems relationship with other organ systems
#NAME?
The main purpose of the reproductive system is to produce _1_. This system consists of the _2_, _3_, _4_, _5_, and _6_. The reproductive system is specialized in men to produce _7_ and in women to produce eggs or _8_. The reproductive organs also house _9_ that encourage or suppress activities within the body (e.g., libido and aggression) and influence the development of masculine or feminine body characteristics.
1. offspring2. testes3. penis4. ovaries5. vagina6. breasts7. sperm8. ova9. hormones
Reproductive systems relationships with other body systems
#NAME?
The respiratory system keeps the body's _1_ supplied with oxygen and removes _2_ ____ as it is released from cells. It consists of the _3_ cavity, _4_, _5_, _6_, _7_, and _8_. The lungs house tiny air sacs called _9_. It is through the walls of alveoli that oxygen and carbon dioxide move in and out of the lungs via small blood vessels called _10_.
1. cells2. carbon dioxide3. nasal4. pharynx5. larynx6. trachea7. bronchi8. lungs9. alveoli10. arterioles
Respiratory systems relationship with other organ systems
#NAME?
The skeletal system provides _1_ and _2_ for the body and its organs and supplies a framework for that, when used in conjunction with the _3_, creates movement. It consists of _4_, _5_, _6_, and _7_. The skeletal system also serves as storage for _8_ such as calcium and phosphorus.
1. support2. protection3. muscles4. bones5. cartilage6. ligaments7. joints8. minerals
Skeletal systems relationship with other organ systems
#NAME?
The urinary or excretory system helps maintain the _1_ and _2_ (sodium, chloride, and potassium) balance within the body, regulates the acid-base balance of the _3_, and removes all _4_-containing wastes from the body. The_5_-containing wastes are by-products of the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids.
1. water2. electrolyte3. blood4. nitrogen5. nitrogen
Urinary systems relationship with other organ systems
#NAME?
Anatomical Position
a standard position in which the body is facing forward, the feet are parallel to each other, and the arms are at the sides with the palms facing forward
Superior
toward the upper end of the body or body structure (opposite of inferior)
Inferior
toward the lower end of the body or body structure (opposite of superior)
Anterior
toward the front of the body or body structure (opposite of posterior)
Posterior
toward the back of the body or body structure (opposite of anterior)
Medial
toward the middle of the body or body structure (opposite of lateral)
Lateral
toward the outer sides of the body or body structure (opposite of medial)
Intermediate
between medial and lateral
Proximal
close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment (opposite of distal)
Distal
away from the origin of the body part or point of attachment (opposite of proximal)
Superficial
toward or at the body surface (opposite of deep)
Deep
away from or below the body surface (opposite of superficial)
Sagittal Section
cut made along a longitudinal plane dividing the body into right and left parts
Midsagittal Section
sagittal section made down the median of the body
Transverse Section (Cross Section)
cut made along a horizontal plane to divide the body into upper and lower regions
Frontal Section (Coronal Section)
cut made along a longitudinal plane that divides the body into front and back regions
Dorsal body cavity
contains the cranial cavity and spinal column
Ventral body cavity
contains all the structures within the chest and abdomen; diaphragm divides the ventral cavity into the thoracic cavity (superior to the diaphragm); below the diaphragm are the abdominal and pelvic cavities
Functions of the human body:
#NAME?
Functions of the human body: Adaptation
receive, interpret, and respond to internal and external stimuli via the nervous system
Functions of the human body: Circulation
transport oxygen and other nutrients to tissues via the cardiovascular system
Functions of the human body: Elimination
remove metabolic wastes from the body via the renal system
Functions of the human body: Locomotion
allow voluntary and involuntary movement of body via the musculoskeletal and neurological systems
Functions of the human body: Nutrition
take in and break down nutrients to be used for metabolism via the digestive system
Functions of the human body: Oxygenation
take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide via the respiratory system
Functions of the human body: Regulation
hormonal control of body functions via the endocrine system
Functions of the human body: Self-duplication
production of offspring via the reproductive system
homeostasis
when all 11 organ systems work together to maintain a stable and relatively constant internal condition
Ways organ systems interact: Maintaining Boundaries
The cells in the human body are eukaryotic cells, which means they are surrounded by a membrane as are the organelles inside the cells. The membrane, which is semipermeable, allows some substances to pass through while restricting others. The integumentary system that surrounds the entire body protects it from environmental stimuli and pathogens.
Ways organ systems interact: Responding to Environmental Changes
The human body has the ability to sense and respond to environmental stimuli, both voluntarily and involuntarily. An individual's ability to physically move away from danger is an example of a voluntary response. The hand's ability to withdraw from painful stimuli before the brain perceives the pain is an example of an involuntary reflex response.
Ways organ systems interact: Moving
The primary purpose of muscular tissue is to support movement of the body. The muscular system moves the bones in the skeletal system and this movement is voluntary. The muscular tissues in the cardiovascular, digestive, reproductive, urinary, and respiratory systems also support movements, and this movement is involuntary.
Ways organ systems interact: Ingesting and Digesting
The organs in the digestive system work to remove nutrients from food and transport those nutrients to other parts of the body using the cardiovascular system.
Ways organ systems interact: Reproducing
The reproductive system plays a key role in reproduction, and hormones regulate this process.
Ways organ systems interact: Growing
Growth occurs due to changes in several body systems. The skeletal and muscular systems change shape. The digestive system removes needed nutrients from food. The cardiovascular system transports these nutrients to the cells. The endocrine system releases hormones that signal when and how much growth should occur.
Ways organ systems interact: Excreting
Once nutrients have been removed from food in the digestion system, the waste that remains is excreted from the body using organs in both the digestive system and the urinary system.
Ways organ systems interact: Metabolizing
Metabolism is the use of energy by cells as a result of chemical reactions within the cells. The digestive and respiratory systems supply the nutrients and oxygen that the body needs to support metabolism. The blood distributes these materials throughout the body and hormones secreted by the glands of the endocrine system regulate the body's metabolism.
Indicate where each of the tissue types can be found. A) Connective TissueB) Epithelial Tissue C) Muscle TissueD) Nervous Tissue i. Boneii. Brainiii. Heartiv. Skin
A) iB) ivC) iiiD) ii
This system works as the transportation system for substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nutrients in the body.
circulatory system
This system breaks down food so that the nutrients can be easily passed into the blood and circulated throughout the body.
digestive system
This system helps cleanse the blood and houses the white blood cells that are involved in protecting the body from environmental pathogens.
lymphatic system
This system helps maintain the water and electrolyte balance within the body, regulates the acid-base balance in the blood, and removes all nitrogen-containing wastes from the body.
urinary system
This system keeps all the cells in the body supplied with oxygen and removes the carbon dioxide.
respiratory system
This system produces movement through contractions.
muscular system
This system produces offspring
reproductive system
This system protects internal tissues from injury, waterproofs the body, and helps regulate body temperature. This system also serves as a barrier to foreign substances.
integumentary system
This system provides support and protection for the body, supplies a framework used to create movement, and serves as storage for minerals, such as calcium.
skeletal system
This system acts as the body's control system and is necessary to protect the body from changes in the internal and external environment.
nervous system
This system controls body functions.
endocrine system
The circulatory system consists of the _1_, _2_, and _3_ ____.
1. heart2. blood3. blood vessels
The ____ is an organ that contracts and pumps blood throughout the body.
heartRhythmic contractions of the heart enable blood to be transported throughout the body
____ are blood vessels that transport blood away from the heart to the capillaries.
arteries
____ are blood vessels that transport blood from the capillaries back to the heart.
veins
The ____ are tiny blood vessels that transport blood from arteries to veins within the body. They also serve as the location for the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, fluid, and nutrients within the body.
capillaries
The heart consists of _1_ chambers: the right and left _2_ and the right and left _3_.
1. 42. atriums3. ventricles
The heart has ____ valves that prevent the flow of blood back into the heart's chambers after a contraction.
fourthe valves include: tricuspid and pulmonary on the right side and mitral and aortic on the left
Deoxygenated blood enters into the heart through the superior and inferior _1_ ____. The blood travels into the right _2_ and, during contraction of the atrium, flows through the _3_ valve into the right ventricle. The blood is pushed through the _4_ valve into the pulmonary artery and lungs when the right _5_ contracts. Here, it picks up _6_. The oxygenated blood is then carried back to the _7_ (by the pulmonary veins), into the _8_ atrium, through the _9_ valve, and into the left _10_. Contraction of the left _11_ forces the blood through the _12_ valve, through the aorta, and out to the entire body.
1. vena cava2. atrium3. tricuspid4. pulmonary5. ventricle6. oxygen7. heart8. left9. mitral10. ventricle11. ventricle12. aortic
Flow of blood through the heart (image)
0
If the mitral valve is damaged, which of the following problems may occur? A) Backflow of blood into the left atrium B) Backflow of blood into the right atrium C) Incomplete emptying of the right ventricle D) Incomplete emptying of the left ventricle
A. Backflow of blood into the left atrium. The mitral valve is on the left side of the heart, separating the ventricle and atrium. If it prolapsed, the blood would back up into the left atrium.
T or F. Blood that passes through the tricuspid valve enters the left ventricle.
False. It would enter the right ventricle.
T or F. Blood that passes through the mitral valve enters the pulmonary artery.
False. It would enter the left ventricle.
T or F. After contraction of the left ventricle, blood enters the aorta.
True.
T or F. After contraction of the right ventricle, blood enters the pulmonary artery.
True.
T or F. After contraction of the right atrium, blood enters the right ventricle.
True.
T or F. The pulmonary valve ensures that blood stays in the aorta.
False. The pulmonary valve ensures that blood stays in the pulmonary artery.
The respiratory system provides for air exchange and supplies tissues with ____ blood.
oxygenated
The primary function of the ____ is breathing in oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide.
lungs
The respiratory process begins as air is inhaled through the _1_ into the _2_, passing into the right and left _3_ tubes. Within the _4_ tubes are tiny hairs called _5_, which keep the airway clear by removing unwanted matter from the lungs. After leaving the _6_ tubes, air travels into the _7_, which are tiny air sacs that are surrounded by capillaries. The _8_ permit the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide to occur. The oxygen is then transported by red blood cells into the _9_. This process begins when the _10_, an abdominal muscle that contracts, pulls air into the lungs during _11_ (the act of taking in oxygenated air). When the _12_ relaxes, carbon dioxide is forced out of the body through _13_.
1. nose2. trachea3. bronchial4. bronchial 5. cilia6. bronchial 7. alveoli8. alveoli9. bloodstream10. diaphragm11. inspiration12. diaphragm13. expiration
Pulmonary function decreases with _____, smoking, and exposure to pollutants and irritating chemicals. Although the normal aging process is unavoidable, ____ and keeping active assist with maintaining adequate lung function.
age, exercise
Diagram of the respiratory system
0
The respiratory system supplies the body with ____ and removes ____ ____.
oxygen, carbon dioxide
It is through the walls of the ____ that oxygen and carbon dioxide move in and out of the capillaries in the lungs.
alveoli
Which of the following happens during inspiration?A) Carbon dioxide enters the lungs from the arterioles around the alveoliB) Oxygen leaves the lungs through the arterioles around the alveoliC) The diaphragm contractsD) The diaphragm relaxes
C) The diaphragm contractsWhen the diaphragm contracts, the chest cavity enlarges, creating negative pressure in the chest cavity and pulling air into the lungs.
The nervous system contains the ____ and the ____.
CNS- central nervous system, PNS- peripheral nervous system
The ____ and spinal cord are part of the ____.
brain, CNS
Cranial and spinal ____ that extend beyond the CNS make up the PNS.
nerves
The ____ is divided into the autonomic nervous system and sensory-somatic nervous system.
PNS
The _1_ _____ _____ controls automatic body functions, like heartbeat and digestion. This system includes both _2_ ____ (which are active when a person is excited or scared) and _3_ ____ (which are active when a person is eating or at rest). These two types of nerves have _4_ effects on the body, which helps to maintain a balanced internal environment.
1. autonomic nervous sysem2. sympathetic nerves3. parasympathetic nerves4. opposite
The sensory-somatic nervous system consists of _1_ pairs of cranial nerves and _2_ pairs of spinal nerves and associated _3_ (collections of nerve cell bodies). This system controls _4_ actions, like walking and talking.
1. 122. 313. ganglia4. voluntary
Nerve cells have ____ that receive stimuli from the internal and external environment and bring those stimuli to the ____ (specialized cells that make up the nervous system and transmit messages) for interpretation.
dendrites, neurons
The _1_ of nerve cells connects one neuron with another neuron over a fluid filled gap called a _2_. Chemical neurotransmitters pass through the _3_ to transmit an impulse to another neuron. This transmission happens at about _4_ meters per second.
1. axon2. synapse3. synapse4. 90
Overall, the nervous system has three main functions: to provide _1_, _2_, and _3_ functions within the body. All of these functions work together with other body systems to react to _4_ and maintain homeostasis within the body.
1. sensory2. motor3. integrative 4. stimuli
The sensory function includes feeling _1_, _2_, and other stimuli. The face, fingers, and toes are more sensitive to stimuli because they have a greater number of _3_ ____ than do other parts of the body.
1. pain2. heat3. sensory neurons
When the body senses pain, it may automatically withdraw from it. This response is called a ____ and occurs when neurons transmit a message to the ____ ____, which in turn sends a message back to the muscles to react before the message is transmitted to the brain.
reflex, spinal cord
The motor function serves to carry electrical impulses from the CNS to the _1_, which are most commonly the glands and muscles. In this way, decisions that are made in the _2_ function are acted upon by other parts of the body. For example, if a person who is hungry sees a table of available food, the _3_ function of the brain tells the body's muscles to move toward the food and the salivary glands begin to produce saliva.
1. effectors2. integrative3. integrative
The integrative function uses ____ information to make decisions by joining together sensory input with memories already stored within the brain. The integrative function also uses ____ information to develop thoughts and feelings upon which decisions may be based at a later time.
sensory, sensory
T or F. The nervous system directs bodily defenses against external stimuli.
True.
T or F. The nervous system regulates heart and breathing rates.
True.
T or F. The nervous system supplies the body with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
False. This is a function of the respiratory system
T or F. The nervous system releases heat built up by the muscular system.
False. This is a function of the integumentary system.
The digestive system is composed of the _1_ ____ and accessory structures. It includes the _2_, _3_, _4_, _5_ ____ (which is made up of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum), _6_ ___ (or colon), and _7_. Accessory structures include teeth, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
1. alimentary canal2. mouth3. esophagus4. stomach5. small intestine6. large intestine7. anus
The gastrointestinal tract (stomach and intestines) is a long, muscular tube lined with ____ muscle in which ____, rhythmic contractions that propel food towards the colon and anus, occurs. These contractions move food along the gastrointestinal tract as the food is mechanically and chemically broken down.
smooth, peristalsis
During the process of _1_ (the mechanical and chemical breakdown of foods), teeth grind, chew, and tear food into smaller pieces to increase the surface area upon which _2_ can act. _3_ are chemicals that break down proteins, carbs, and fats into nutrients that can be absorbed through the wall of the _4_ into the bloodstream. Salivary _5_, an enzyme from the parotid salivary glands, begins chemical digestion of carbs. Once swallowed, the _6_ of food passes through the esophagus and into the _7_. Cells in the stomach lining secrete _8_ for lubrication, an enzyme to begin protein digestion (protease), hydrochloric acid, and intrinsic factor, which increases the stomach's absorption of vitamin _9_. Mechanical churning of the stomach also continues to break the food down into smaller pieces. (cont'd)
1. digestion2. enzymes3. enzymes4. intestine5. amylase6. bolus7. stomach8. mucus 9. B12
(cont'd) At this point, fat-laden _1_ (mixture of food, chemicals, and enzymes in the stomach) remains in the stomach longer than _2_-laden chyme, which advances more quickly into the small-intestine (_3_) through the _4_ ____. This sphincter releases chyme from the stomach into the _5_ ____.
1. chyme2. carbohydrate3. duodenum4. pyloric sphincter5. small intestine
The first section of the small intestine, called the _1_, releases two hormones: _2_ and _3_ (CCK). _4_ travels to the pancreas to trigger the release of bicarbonate, which neutralizes the stomach acid entering the duodenum. In addition, _5_ triggers the release of pancreatic enzymes that further aid chemical digestion in the small intestine. _6_ is released from the duodenum as well and initiates bile release from the _7_, while decreasing motility and acid production by the stomach. Additional enzymes needed to complete the digestion of fats, proteins, an carbs are released.
1. duodenum2. secretin3. cholecystokinin4. secretin5. secretin6. CCK- cholecystokinin7. gallbladder
Absorption of the nutrients occurs in the _1_ intestine through finger-like projections called _2_. _3_ and microvilli increase the surface area within the _4_ intestine, increasing the area from which absorption can take place. Each _5_ contains arterioles and lymphatic vessels through which absorption occurs.
1. small 2. villi3. villi4. small5. villus
The remaining products of digestion that are not absorbed are transported to the _1_. Absorption of _2_, which affects water and electrolyte balance, occurs in the _3_, and the storage and formation of feces also occurs.
1. colon2. water3. colon
Parts of the body involved in digestion (image)
0
The digestion of carbohydrates begins in the ____.
mouth
The propulsion of food through the gastrointestinal tract is called ____. A) chemotaxisB) digestionC) peristalsisD) metabolism
C) peristalsis Peristalsis is the rhythmic contractions that occur in the stomach and intestines ,which moves food from the stomach toward the anus.
The surface area for absorption in the small intestine is increased as a result of A) enzymatic action on nutrientsB) villi and microvilliC) mechanical breakdown that occurs during chewingD) the parasympathetic nervous system
B) villi and microvilliVilli and microvilli are finger-like projections of tissue in the intestines that significantly increase the surface area from which nutrients are absorbed.
The immune system (tissues, cells, and organs that fight off illness and disease) is composed of both _1_ (nonspecific) and _2_ (specific) defenses that are designed to protect the body from _3_ and other foreign invaders.
1. innate2. adaptive3. pathogens
_1_ immune functions provide a nonspecific type of defense. These defense mechanisms occur the same way every time, regardless of the type or number of _2_ that are present. _3_ defenses include a first line of defense, which includes both physical and _4_ barriers (skin, mucous membranes, and digestive enzymes).
1. innate2. pathogens3. innate4. chemical
Innate defenses also include a second line of _1_ defenses. These include fever, inflammation, _2_ (engulfing of pathogens by _3_ blood cells), natural killer cells, interferons, chemotaxis, and release of _4_.
1. nonspecific2. phagocytosis3. white4. cytokines
Mild to moderate ____ benefit the body by killing pathogens that grow better at a lower body temperature.
fevers
____ occurs as a response to irritating chemicals, heat, trauma, or infection by pathogens. Redness, heat, swelling, and pain are the four cardinal signs of ____.
inflammation, inflammation
_1_ ____ cells, or NK cells, produce _2_ (pore-forming proteins) that target cancer and virus cells. _3_ cause these cells to _4_, or rupture.
1. natural killer2. perforins3. perforins4. lyse
___ are the body's response to a viral infection and prevent replication of the virus after 7 to 10 days. They also activate macrophages and ____ cells.
interferons, NK
_1_ is the method by which the _2_ (white blood cells) respond to damaged body tissues. This is accomplished in part through _3_, chemical messengers that are released by damaged tissues.
1. chemotaxis2. leukocytes3. cytokines
____, which is the process of white blood cells squeezing through capillary slits in response to cytokines, occurs, followed by cellular adhesion of molecules (CAMs) guiding the white blood cells to the site of damage or infection.
diapedesis
Adaptive responses are known as the third line of defense, or the ____ defenses. These include both the ____, or antibody-mediated, and the cell-mediated responses.
specific, humoral
In the antibody-mediated branch, _1_ are produced that are specific for the invading _2_. The antigen binds to _3_ cells (types of lymphocytes or small leukocytes) followed by binding with _4_-helper cells. This activates the _5_ cells to produce antibodies.
1. antibodies2. antigen3. B 4. T5. B
In ____ immunity, an individual receives a ____ that simulates an actual infection by a pathogen, stimulating the body to produce antibodies for future protection.
active, vaccine
In _____ immunity, an individual does not produce his or her own antibodies, but rather receives them directly from another source, such as mother to infant through breast milk.
passive
Once the immune system has produced ____ against a pathogen, it is able to recognize that pathogen in the future and destroy it more effectively.
antibodies
In _____ immunity, _____ cells are primarily responsible for recognizing nonself cells.
cell-mediated, T
A __1_ is a lymphocyte that triggers the action of other lymphocytes. In a three-step process, macrophages capture the nonself cell, a T-helper cell binds to it and secretes a _2_ that signals the cytotoxic T cell. The cytotoxic T cell responds through __3_ and actively destroys the nonself cell.
1. T cell2. cytokine3. chemotaxis
What kind of immunity is produced by a vaccine? A) Naturally acquired passive immunity B) Artificially acquired passive immunity C) Naturally acquired active immunity D) Artificially acquired active immunity
D) Artificially acquired active immunity Vaccines provide an artificial source (as compared to a natural source that comes from actually having a disease) of active immunity that stimulates antibody and memory cell production
Which of the following are released by damaged cells in an effort to draw white blood cells to the are of damage? A) PhagocytesB) CytokinesC) InterferonsD) Leukocytes
B) Cytokines Damaged tissue releases cytokines, which attract white blood cells to the area of infection or injury.
What is the physiological benefit of a mild to moderate fever? A) Warns individual that body is under attack by a pathogenB) Stimulates release of macrophagesC) Decreases metabolismD) Enhances destruction of pathogens
D) Enhances destruction of pathogensThe warm body temperature that occurs during a fever accelerates the destruction of pathogens and increases the activity of white blood cells.
_1_ ____ refer to the average number of children a woman will have during her childbearing years, which occur between the ages of _2_ and _3_.
1. fertility rates2. 153. 44
Fertility rates are significant because they coincide with the _____ rate, which is the number of births needed to maintain the population at its current number.
replacement
The replacement rate is _____ in less-developed countries, mainly due to higher infant, child, and adult death rates.
higher
The current fertility rate is much ____ in less developed countries.
higher
Fertility rates are higher in which of the following types of countries? A) Less developedB) More developedC) Countries in the equatorial geographic regionsD) Countries in temperate geographic regions
A) Less developedFertility rates are higher in less-developed countries due to higher infant and child mortality rates.
Which of the following are factors that may affect birth rates? (Select all that apply.)A) ReligionB) CultureC) EconomyD) TaxesE) GovernmentF) TransportationG) LiteracyH) Infant mortality ratesI) AbortionsJ) Accessibility of family planning
A) ReligionB) CultureC) EconomyE) GovernmentG) LiteracyH) Infant mortality ratesI) AbortionsJ) Accessibility of family planningTaxes and transportation do not have a direct relationship to birth rates.
The growth and decline of a population in a country is a result of the difference between that population's ____ and ____ rates as well as the number of people who immigrate to or emigrate from that country.
birth, death
____ birth rate is defined by the number of births per 1,000 people per year.
crude
____ death rate is defined by the number of deaths per 1,000 people per year.
crude
____ is the act of an individual moving into a region or country to live (migrate into).
immigration
____ is the act of an individual moving out of one region or country to live in another (migrate out of).
emigration
Changes in the population are also affected by the country's economy, _1_, _2_ care, natural _3_, food, _4_, water, and climate.
1. politics2. medical3. resources4. land