cross-sectional research
people of different ages are compared at the same point
longitudinal research
behavior of one or more participants is traced as the participants age
cross-sequential research
combines cross-sectional and longitudinal research by taking a number of different age groups and examining them over several points in time
interactionist approach
with identical twins, heredity and environment matter in this type of research approach, as well as HOW and TO WHAT DEGREE do each influence development
Piaget
errors
believed that the driving force behind intellectual development is our biological development amidst experiences with the environment. Our cognitive development is shaped by the ___ we make.
stages
actively
Piaget observed that cognitive development happens in ___
*same aged children make similar errors
He believed that children ___ seek knowledge
schemas
mental frameworks for organizing what we know
assimilation
interpreting new information in terms of existing schemas
accommodation
creating a new schema for information that doesnt fit
sensorimotor stage
experience world through senses and actions
-object permanence
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
preoperational stage
continued development of symbols (language)
-egocentrism
-conservation
egocentrism
the inability of a child to take another's point of view
preoperational stage
if a child can be simply appeased by you cutting french fries in half to give the appearance that they have more food, what stage are they in?
conservation
the principle that properties such as mass, volume and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
preoperational stage
a child who has not yet mastered the concepts of egocentrism and conservation are said to be in what stage?
concrete operational
can now perform most of these operations (egocentrism, conservation) successfully, but only on concrete or tangible objects or events
reversibilty
concrete operational
to mentally undo an action. What stage do we see this in children?
decentration
concrete operational
can focus on more that one feature at a time. What stage do we see this in children?
concrete operational
children who cant deal with abstract ideas (justice) are said to be in what stage?
formal operational (11 and up)
reasoning expands to abstract thinking. Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically. Become concerned with hypothetical, future and ideological problems
Personality
Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting
Projective tests
attempt to tap into the unconscious by allowing projection of inner feelings. (ex. Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test)
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Usually, 10 bilaterally symmetrical inkblots. People tell what they see.
Some say there is virtually no evidence, while others think it may demonstrate hostility and anxiety.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Developed by Henry Murray. Used in studies of motivate and clinical work. 20 pictures of ambiguous scenes involving people and the subject is asked to tell a story about the scene.
Criticized for being too open ended and requiring too much ability by test
MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
567 T/F questions. Subscales to access personality disorder. More valid and reliable than projective tests.
Id
Operates on the pleasure principal.
Primitive and unconscious part of personality.
"devil
Ego
Operates on the reality principle.
mediates between id and superego.
"main character
Superego
Moral ideals and conscience
ideal, how we ought to behave.
"angel
Psychosexual Development
Personality is fixed by age 5, after passing through series of psychosexual stages.
Freud said development is dependent on changes in distribution of sexual energy on diff areas of body.
Oral
(0-1 years) pleasure from sucking, biting, chewing.
created when indulged every time hungry or denied or weaned to quickly.
Anal
(1-3 years) Pleasure focuses of bowel and bladder elimination.
Coping with control demands.
Phallic
(3-6 years) pleasure from genitals.
Oedipal complex
boys attracted to mothers, jealousy/hatred of father leads to fearing him and worrying about castration. (part of Phallic) Resolved when identify with same sex parent and in development of superego.
Latency
(6-12 years) Focus on same sex friends
less focus on genitals, ignore opposite sex
Genital
(12-on) Mature sexual functioning
Fixation
Failure to progress smoothly through stages can cause a fixation in a certain stage. (Engaging in behaviors associated with that stage)
Fixation in oral stage
(goal: successful weaning)
Smoking, eating, "sucker", gullible person who will "swallow anything"
someone who makes biting remarks
Fixation in anal stage
(goal: potty training)
Very controlling and neat (anal-retentive)
or disorganized (anal-expulsive)
Carl Rogers
Humanist. Believed we must strive to fulfill our unique potential, to achieve self-actualization.
May have been overly optimistic.
fully functioning people: open to experience, existential living, trust themselves, good relationships.
Unconditional Positive Regard
Necessary for self-actualization.
Being treated with acceptance no matter what your feelings and behavior.
Abraham Maslow
Agreed with Rogers that we have an innate need and drive to fulfill our potential (self-actualization)
Self-actualized people (Maslow)
Accurate grip on reality, problem-centered, acceptance of self & others, independent
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs
lower needs must be met to get higher.
1: Physiological
2: Safety
3: Love and belonging
4: Esteem
5: Self-actualization
Interactionism
The belief that behavior is jointly determined by situations and personality traits.
Personality- big five
1) openness to experience
2) conscientiousness
3) extraversion
4) agreeableness
5) neuroticism
(O.C.E.A.N)
Childhood/ adolescence (12-20)
drop in extroversion, rise in neuroticism for girls, small dip in agreeableness and conscientiousness ("adolescent dip")
Adulthood
Rise in conscientiousness and agreeableness. Drop in neuroticism for women and small drop in openness to explore.
Sensation
Conversion of the stimulus to neural impulses
(5 senses)
Perception
Interpreting stimuli and making sense of them
Stimulus
anything that activates our sensation system
3 step process
step 1: Stimulus energy (ex. light photon) reaches sense receptors
step 2: sense organ (ex. eye) transudes the stimulus energy into an electrical code (neural transmission)
step 3: this code is sent to the cerebral cortex resulting in a psychological expe
Constancy
we experience perceptual stability even though the sensed stimulus changes.
Shape constancy- ex: closed vs open door
size constancy- ex: hand close to and far from face
brightness constancy
Depends on relative luminance. (amount of light an object reflects relative to surroundings)
ex: lights on vs. off
Simultaneous contrast
Objects look lighter against a dark background than a light
Transduction
Translation of stimulus energy into an electrical code/ neural impulse.
Each sense system has receptor cells
Adaptation
Senses are especially sensitive to changes over time
Bottom-up processing
taking information in its pieces and putting it together. (beginning with sensory info and is integrated by the brain)
data driven. perception directs cognitive awareness.
Top-down
starts with the whole (perceived info. guided by higher level processes)
Rods
120 million.
-detect black and white
-in receptor cells in retina
-necessary for: low light (night vision) and periphery
Cones
6 million.
-in receptor cells in retina
-function in brighter light
-detects fine detail, enables color perception
-concentrated near fovea
Trichromatic Theory
retina contains three kinds of cones sensitive to different wavelengths- red, blue, green
-other colors are a combination of these
-explains color blindness as it is due to one of the three cone system malfunctioning
Opponent Process theory
As info leaves receptor cells, we analyze it in terms of opponent colors. (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black)
Trichromatic VS. Opponent Process
Trichromatic best explains first stage: how cones gather info
Opponent process occurs at a later stage: cones pass info to ganglion cells that increase activity when one color is activated and decrease activity when another color is activated.
Binocular disparity
a depth cue using both eyes. ("bi"-two)*
Texture gradient
Distant objects appear denser
Linear Perspective
Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance
Relative size
Distant objects appear smaller than closer ones
Context effects
when our expectations influence what we perceive
figure
object being perceived
ground
the background or spaces within the object
Skin sensations
-touch/pressure
-warmth
-cold (warm and cold have diff receptors)
-pain
Gate-Control theory
-spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain.
-Gate opens by activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers
"Gate" closing:
-from the PNS: activity in larger fibers
-from brain: expe
Temperature
-warm receptors fire more often when skin warms up and slow down when skin cools.
-Cool receptors do the opposite
-Some cool receptors start firing at very high temps. So, both will fire when you encounter something really hot.
Smell
-airborne odor molecules are inhaled through the nose
-olfactory receptor cells are stimulated in nasal cavity then converted to neural signals to olfactory bulb
-only neurons that directly link the brain to outside world
-connect to temporal lobe for con
Taste
-Human mouth contains about 5,000-10,000 taste buds
-about 200 in each papilla
-each taste bud has 50-100 taste receptor cells
-Receptors respond to 5 basic tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter and unami.
-old "tongue maps" are a myth. All 5 tastes can be s
Place theory
the theory that links he pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
Frequency theory
the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.
-we hear by frequency of tone
Hearing
-Hair cells on basilar membrane seem to vibrate together. (frequency theory)
-Wave moves along basilar membrane and seems to peak at a certain place. (place theory)
low sounds- frequency theory
high sounds- place theory
middle sounds- combo of the two
Locating sounds
-Sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the other. Our brain uses this info to locate sound.
-people who lose all hearing in one hear have difficulty locating sounds.
vygotskys view of cognitive development
thought that culture and social experience can influence the speed or progress through these stages. It's not automatic to the next
kohlbergs theory of moral development
moral reasoning is not learned but constructed through interaction with society and environment
speed
environmental factors may affect the ___ of development, but nothing else
pre-conventional
ages 7-9 or 10, egocentrism and personal interests (seek reward to avoid punishment)
attachment
the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a caregiver
proximity maintenance
safe haven
secure base
three functions of attachment
secure
caregiver is responsive and shows positive emoitions, leading to plenty of trust, so no concern of abandonment, feeling liked
avoidant
caregiver is aloof and distant, avoiding intimacy, leading to suppression of attachment needs by infants, probably knowing that showing such needs would lead to rejection. Close contact will be voided
anxious-ambivalent
caregiver is inconsistent, leading infants to be anxious because they can never predict how parent will react. They become obsessed with their caregiver due to this fact
social intuitionist method
moral judgement happens in two stage. 1. moral judgement rests of intuitions
2.moral reasoning happens after the moral judgement has been made to justify the judgement