What was the Enlightenment?
- A belief in reason rather than faith - Began in the C17, but flourished in the C18 - Challenged anything that was unthinkingly accepted i.e Divine Right of Kings
What did liberalism have to say about who should rule?
- There needed to be CONSENT to government
Which liberal philosopher is associated with this period?
- John Locke - Believed humans had the power of logic, calculation + deduction - Believed that it was logical that humans can make their own political system - based upon reason
What are the key features of classical liberalism?
- Government by consent - Guarantee of individual freedom - Representative democracy - A limited role for state within the society and economy - Individuals are born with natural rights
What features are associated with modern liberalism?
- An increased role of the state within society and the economy - Enhanced individual freedom, as it would help people to flourish (for neo-liberals this was a betrayal of classical liberalism)- KTs: John Rawls + TH Green
Why is individualism so important to liberals?
- Because liberals believe that humans are rationals, responsible for their own behaviour + that is a CORE belief
Individualism definition:
- The preservation of individual rights + freedoms, above any claims by the state of groupings
Foundational equality
- All individuals are born with natural rights which entitle them to liberty - All individuals are treated equally under the law
Egotistical individualism
- Individual freedom is associated with a rational sense of self-reliance + self-interest
Developmental individualism
- Individuals must help themselves to improve - Classical = no state help - Modern - state intervention is beneficial + can assist in development
Formal equality
- Wider concept - Equality under law, but also every person is entitled to equal treatment in society - Equality of opportunity, abolition of societal distinctions - gender inequality
Classical liberalism's on individualism
- The state has a limited role within society + the economy (self-reliance) - An individual's primary motivation is EGOTISTICAL individualism, maximising personal value - The freedom of the individual is sacrosanct (essential)- Society should be a collection of autonomous (self-governing) individuals
Modern liberalism's on individualism
- Want the state to have a larger role within society + the economy - Believe in modern developmental individualism, for fairer society - Agree on self-reliance, but state must offer "hand outs" to help individuals achieve goals
What was the pre-Enlightenment view of human nature?
- Man's only hope lay in him acknowledging his flaws + imperfections, while praying for the grace + forgiveness of God - Mankind was deeply flawed and imperfect
What is liberalisms more optimistic view of human nature?
- Liberalism challenged pre-Enlightenment views - Human nature has a huge capacity to bring about progress + an unending ability to forge greater human happiness - Individuals are guided by reason or rationalism —> progress from pre-enlightenment
How is humanity's innate reason (skills) manifested (shown)?
- Through debate, discussion, peaceful argument + the measured examination of ideas + opinions
How do liberals approach problems?
- Through reasoned argument - Human "problems" are merely challenged awaiting reasoned solution
Define the concept of rationalism
- The world has a rational structure, this can be disclosed through the exercise of human reason + critical enquiry
What do liberals believe about individual judgment?
- Believe that individuals should be free to exercise their judgment about their own interests, without needing to be guided by external authorities ie. State or Church
How did scientific learning contribute to rationalism?
- Liberals were encouraged by the development of scientific learning in 18C - Liberated people from blind faith
How did Locke's ideas contribute to key historical and political developments in the 17C and 18C?
- Pushed back the boundaries of human understanding + liberated people from blind faith
What is the state of nature?
- Idea that individuals are born into an anarchic state of nature which is either happy (Locke) or unhappy (Hobbes) - No political organisations, no laws
Why did Locke argue that humans would agree to form a government?
- By using natural reason + individual self-interest - Realised government is useful and ought to be accepted, helps to resolve issues and conflict
What duties did the governed owe the government?
- To obey the laws + uphold the security of the state - SOCIAL CONTRACT between the citizens + government - There is an agreement to government
What right did the citizens have if the government did not protect their natural rights?
- The right to overthrow the government JUSTIFIABLY - Natural rights (right to property)
What did early liberals feel about authoritarian governments?
- They resented authoritarian governments + absolute monarchies
What is the role of government?
- To protect natural rights ie. Freedom - Protect man's right to life, liberty and estate - Gov't needs to mediate between competing individuals, enforce order, protect property and prevent breach of contracts
What is a limited government?
- A principle that government should be contained by strong laws + constitutions - All branches of liberals support entrenched constitutions + separation of powers
Why should the government be limited?
- So that individuals enjoy a maximum amount of freedom within a legal framework - To prevent tyranny
What is negative freedom (+KT)?
- We should be free from interference as long as it doesn't harm anyone else - John Stuart Mill
What is classical liberalism's conception of freedom described as?
- Atomistic - made up of individuals with their own interests, people succeed of fail or succeed in society based off their own interests
What is the Harm Principle?
- You should be free to do anything you like, as long as it doesn't harm anyone else
How do modern liberals differ from classical liberals on the idea of freedom?
- Classical think state threatens freedom - Moderns think state helps freedom
What did T H Green argue?
- Society was organic whole, in which people pursue the common good - Inequality is not freedom
Positive freedom (modern)
- Freedom to achieve, with state intervention if needed - Social inequality limits your capacity to be free (TH Green) - State should provide support through welfare and taxes (John Rawls, KT)
Negative freedom (classical)
- Free from restraints - Being left alone - Locke (KT) - Adam Smith Economy - No state restrictions, humans are rationals - State is a threat to freedom - Free speech + property
What idea is central to liberalism?
- Government should be based on the consent of the people - Without this, government lacks legitimacy
What is social contract theory?
- An unofficial agreement shared by everyone in society, in which they give up some freedom in return for security
Why do liberals support democracy?
- It enables citizens to hold government to account - It extends popular participation - It performs an educational role in society —> personal development - It gives political voice to different groups
Why was Mill (elitist) worried about democracy?
- He feared the dominance of the working class, if they had the vote - Favoured an elite democracy
What should democracy include beyond competitive elections?
- Safeguards of individual freedoms, against tyranny of the majority - Limitations on the power of the state - Toleration of different viewpoints
What are the key features of liberal democracy?
- Supremacy of the people (every person should have the vote) - The consent of the governed as the BASIS of legitimacy - The rule of law + peaceful methods of conflict resolution - The existence of a common good or public interest - The value of the individual as a rational, moral, active citizen - Political equality and equal civil rights for all individuals
Liberal Democracy Summary
- Liberals fear abuse of power by gov't = TYRANNY (absolute monarchies - no consent to gov't) - BUT the state is a necessary evil to protect rights and resolve disputes - Therefore governments should be LIMITED through constitutions, bill of rights, separation of powers
What is the state of nature?
- Life before laws, formal rules + gov't
Why does Locke believe that the state is necessary despite an optimistic view of human nature?
- For resolution of clashes ie. Property - There will still be disagreements in society despite Locke's optimistic view - The state provides structure
What key feature is Locke's state founded upon?
- CONSENT - This contrasts absolute monarchies
How was Locke's view contrasting systems of government that dominated Europe at that time?
- Contrast with absolute monarchy + divine right of kings
What principle should government be based upon?
- Based on the principle of limited government, by limiting its power and jurisdiction —> constitutions, bill of rights, regular elections, separated branches
Why do liberals describe the state as a necessary evil?
- The state is needed to avoid disorder + to protect the vulnerable - However, they fear the concentration of political power, as it gives gov't greater incentive to benefit themselves + use other people for their own ends - Humans are self-seeking!!!
Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely
Lord Acton
What is constitutionalism?
- Government power is separated and limited by a system of laws
What are the typical features of a liberal constitution?
- Separation of powers, three branches share the power
How do classical liberals wish to limit power?
1) Limiting power 2) Limiting jurisdiction 3) Limiting the electorate
1. Limiting Power? (Classical)
- Power divided between different branches of gov't - The state should be based on gov't by consent - Influenced by the US constitution
2. Limiting jurisdiction? (Classical)
- Individuals should be protected by law from actions that may harm individual liberty - State should operate under the rule of law, all citizens enjoy foundational equality
3. Limiting the electorate? (Classical)
- Classical liberals were in favour of representative democracy, rather than a direct, popular democracy - JS Mill believed that only those with a formal education should be allowed to vote, feared that popular democracy might lead to a tyranny of the majority
What is classical liberalism's view of the role of the state in society?
- Limited role of the state - state is nothing but a necessary evil - Advocates egotistical individualism within a society and a lassies-faire attitude towards the economy - Want a nightwatchman state (state just protects citizens and provides law & order)
How did JS Mill adapt his view of the role of the state?
- Adapted view of limited gov't, to allow for state intervention, to help the poor + those who were experiencing injustice - Supported of state funded education
How did TH Green reinterpret the role of the state?
- Reinterpreted the state, so that it played a ;arger role in both society and the economy —> promote equality of opportunity through education + reduction of inherited privilege
According to modern liberals what should the state do?
1. Supply of public goods (clean air + water) 2. Regulation of working hours
What did Keynes argue that the state was capable of?
- Managing the economy, so as to secure full employment
What does Rawls argue in his three principles of justice?
1. Individuals have the same set of absolute liberties 2. There must be equal opportunities for all 3. Although some inequalities were inevitable, there must be a priority to help the disadvantaged
What is the difference principle?
- Although some inequalities are inevitable, there must be a priority to help the disadvantaged
Classical liberals on role of state...
- Believe that the role of the state should be strictly limited to maintaining law + order, property rights and securing the society from invasion - Optimal size of gov't is small
Modern liberals on role of state...
- Argue that the state should create conditions of freedom to allow individuals to reach their full potential
What did early 20C liberals introduce?
- The Old-Age Pensions Act (1908) - The National Insurance Act (1911)
What are the 5 giants identified in the 1942 report produced by William Beveridge?
1. Want - extreme poverty 2. Ignorance - due to lack of formal education 3. Disease - exacerbated by lack of free healthcare 4. Squalor - poor living conditions 5. Idleness - exacerbated by unemployment
What did Keynes argue?
- That government could prevent economic slumps and the devastating unemployment that followed, by managing demand and stimulating the economy - This role of the state became the norm in postwar Europe and America
What does Rawls argue about the role of the state?
- State had to ensure equality of opportunity through: minimum wage, a society free from discrimination, increasing state spending (through taxation) to fund an enabling welfare state - Wanted an enabling welfare state
Why does Rawls take his position?
- Because he wants social + economic equality
Which economic system do liberals support and why?
- Liberals support a capitalist economy, as they believe that property is a natural right, so it makes sense that they support an economy that puts private property at the heart of all economic arrangements - There are different types / degrees of capitalism, depending on levels of state involvement
Who wrote the Wealth of Nations (1776) and what did this work argue?
- Adam Smith - Put forward his theory of markets, drawing on his ideas on liberal + rationalist assumptions about human nature - Believed the market operates according to the wishes and decisions of free individuals - Wanted freedom within the market = freedom of choice ie. Businesses choose what goods to make - Relationships within the market (buyers + sellers) are VOLUNTARY + CONTRACTUAL, made by self-interested individuals, for whom pleasure is equated with the acquisition + consumption of wealth - Neo-liberal - Free market, little state involvement
What is the invisible hand?
- Adam Smith asserted that, if obstacles to free trade were swept away, the "invisible hand" of market forces would guide traders towards success - Resulting wealth would trickle down to everyone
What do modern liberals think about the role of government and the economy?
- Reject the idea of a self-regulating market economy - Argue that the economy should be regulated or "managed" by the government - The market, left to its own devices, is FLAWED —> unemployment, inequality - This helps to explain the attraction of Keynesianism to many modern liberals
Timeline of liberal economy
1. Classical liberals + economy Adam Smith - until early 20C 2. Modern liberals Keynes 1940s 3. Return to classical liberals in 1970s Neo-lib - small state, free market, Thatcherism