Broad Definition of IM
the natural propensity to engage one's interests and exercise one's capacities
Specific Definition of IM
doing a certain activity of one's own accord
Koestner Reading Example
Stopped reading when he was 40, then bought Harry Potter and got really into it - read the new books every year, made them last - finished the series at the beach
Reading
Children are very connected to books - very interested in themShowed home video of Sophie to show this -> pretends to be librarian named MarianneStory about Sophie where she lost something under the radiator and book with monkey finding something under a rock to communicate this
Rewards and Praise
Issue is that extrinsic and intrinsic motivation compete -> extrinsic motivation crowds out the intrinsic motivation
Kermie story
Sophie obsessed with reading books to win Kermie, but she was reading in a compulsive and rushed wayReading was about winning, not about enjoying the activityDamaging
Pizza Hut BOOK IT! Program
Gives free pizza, praise and recognition for reading accomplishmentsBased on the idea that giving rewards makes people like things more- ends up being damaging -> only gets kids to eat more pizza
Lepper et al (1973)
Method: free choice paradigm: control -> kids played on their own, reward -> given certificate - after FC period, kids have chance to draw again - results: rewards create trade off between quality and quantity - distorted the way you do the activity -> more pics, but of lesser quality Kids given reward only showed 50% intrinsic motivation the following week
Follow ups to Leper et al
Effect generalizes across cultures and reward typesBut effects are most powerful and most devastating with younger childrenAll kinds of contingent rewards have effect (engagement, completion, quality) - only non-contingent reward has no effect
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
A version of self-determination theory which holds that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling
Harter's Research on the Impact of School on Children's Intrinsic Motivation
- linear drop in curiosity/interest over the school years- does not occur in Montessori schools - drop v drastic from elementary to middle school
Refinement of Harter's research; Lepper et al, 2005
Large, culturally diverse sampleExamined relations to school performanceFound that performance suffers as intrinsic motivation declines
Instructional practices that promote reading motivation (and comprehension)
Encouraging choiceProviding interesting, relevant textsFacilitating social interaction around booksUsing hands-on activities to spark interest
Allington et al, 2010
Addressing summer reading setback among economically disadvantaged elementary studentsThe summer slide 1000 1st graders assigned to book fair condition 500 in control group get puzzle books Dep. Variable = reading achievement 3 years later Result: significant positive effect of books, esp. for low SES "quality" of books did not matter! - reading about Britney Spears helped
How to regain intrinsic motivation
to regain intrinsic motivationLook for the spark of interestDon't judge yourself Try different formatsTrust that intrinsic motivation will lead to challenge
3 main methods to motivate children
- rewards- praise - competition
Praise
- has short term and long term effects - can destroy IM in the long run
Common functions of praise
create bondMotivateProtectManipulate
Koestner positive praise
Richard after Holy Child basketball game in 5th grade - coach signalled out Koestner, praised him
Koestner negative example of praise
Richard called before his 8th grade class - announced that Koestner was accepted to a good high school, felt embarrassed
Motivational Impact of Praise
Depends on how the praise is interpretedMediators: Type of relationship Type of praise Age, gender, cultural background Public nature
Praise as reinforcement requirements
- contingent - specific - credible
Brophy observational Studies (1981)
Found that only 5% of a teacher's communication could be classified as praise, while criticism accounted for 10% of their communicationFound that teachers often did not give praise in an effective wayFound no relationship between improvement and praiseConcluded that teachers were using praise in a haphazard, random useless way that was not producing results
Positive guidance
Generalized praise that creates positive atmosphereReflects, agreeable, harmless personalityDoesn't really enhance motivation in any way
Transition ritual
Praise indicates that one activity is done, that we are moving onAlso doesn't enhance motivation
Balance for criticism
Compliment sandwichContingency is not clearBetter to sandwich with empathy and give suggestions for future
Icebreaker or peace offering
For bullies/antagonistic kidsSends a message that things are ok, calm
Consolation prize or as encouragement
For slower kidsProblem is that it is being done publicly - can be embarrassing and demeaning
Vindication of predictions
Praise of self and of childFor kids who are smart but are lazy/distracted/oppositional
Attempted vicarious reinforcement
Role modelPraise as a way of sending a message to the rest of the class - trying to inspire others
Student-elicited stroking
Children who systematically reinforce the teachers to praise them moreMost commonProbably the most dangerous in the long-run - should worry about these children's IM
Spontaneous expression of surprise or admiration
Rarest type of praiseMost effectiveActually contingent, spontaneous and credible
Brophy's Conclusion
students do not actually need praise to master the curriculum, to acquire acceptable role behaviours or even to develop healthy self-concepts"Teacher praise is a weak reinforcer, especially after age 8/9 when kids get out of. The adult-pleasing mode
process praise
emphasizing children's effort, strategies or specific actions
person praise
indicates that the child had a fixed, positive quality
Dweck, 2018: Parent Praise to Toddlers Predicts Fourth Grade Academic Achievement via Children's Incremental Mindsets
Method: Parent praise sampled 90 min naturalistic observations in child's home at 14, 26 and 38 monthsResults: The way the mother praised the child was strongly related to malleable or fixed mindsets Process focused -> malleable Person focused -> fixedDweck recommends process-focused praise be given
How to give corrective feedback?
Joelle Carpentier on coach's "change-oriented feedback" - indicates behaviours that need to be modified so that athlete can achieve their goals Show empathy with the challenge Choice of solutions to correct problems Free from person-related statements Given in a considerate tone of voice End with empathy about the difficulty of changing ingrained habitsEmpathy-process-empathy sandwichShould ask the child how they think it went
Scanlon's (1992) Model of Sports Commitment
Commitment = desire and resolve -> function of 5 factors: sports enjoyment, involvement opportunities, personal investments, involvement alternatives, social contraints - adapted from relationships field
1. Sports Enjoyment
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2. Involvement Opportunities
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3. Personal Investments
- positive predictor, but can backfire
4. Involvement alternatives
negative predictor
5. social constraints
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Koestner on Scanlon
argues that Scanlon is missing a factor - informal/formal: competition and its effects on our interest and liking and commitment to a sport
Deci (1981)
method: FCP, puzzles -> competition (beat other person) vs no competition (do your best), confederate taught to allow other person to lose results: participants in competition condition did not continue to play
Csikszentmihalyi, 1975: reasoning for playing basketball
Competition - measuring self vs othersDevelopment of personal skillsFriendshipsActivity itselfEnjoyment of experience/use of skillsMeasuring self against own idealsPrestige/glamour/rewardsEmotional release-> competition can be about challenge and measuring oneself -> a positive thing
Reeve and Deci (1996)
Method: FCP puzzles -> non-controlling (try to outperform, both win and lose) vs controlling (must win, do only win)results: only positive condition was non-controlling win
Implications of Study
winning a competition may not undermine IM if there is not undue pressure to win
Competition and Sportsmanship (Vallerand & Losier, 1994)
Method: Longitudinal study of Quebec midget elite AAA hockey platers at beginning and end of hockey seasonMeasures sportsmanship at each timeResults: competitive motivation at time 1 significantly reduced sportsmanship at time 2
So is it critical to teach competitive skills?
NO -> Too much practice competing, not enough collaboratinghigh social skills are more needed than competition skills - empathy, cooperativeness etc. Best combo = high math + high social skills
Characteristics of Singapore Schools:
More standardsMore homeworkMore emphasis on math and scienceLonger days and yearHigh stakes testing - pretty much every year At 12, take test that determines rest of lifeHighly value teaching as a profession
United states trying top down approach:
More standardsMore homeworkMore emphasis on math and scienceMore classes for giftedLonger days and yearUniformsMerit pay for teachersPay for students
Finland Currently
Age 7 school startSame teacher for 3 years - get to know students wellNo grades until grade 12 (still evaluated though)No gifted classesNo uniformsTeacher by first nameNo special prizes or awardsRecess every hou
hat can teachers do to help children maintain their intrinsic motivation?
Encourage cooperation: small groups working together to solve problemsSupport autonomy: self-directed learning, personal responsibility - message is why you should care about learning something
Johnson & Johnson (1999): established 3 goal structures in classrooms:
Competition: people attain their goals only if others do notCooperative: people attain their goals only when others od alsoIndividualism: people attain their goals without affecting the goal attainment of othersCooperation shown to be the best
Cooperation Associated with:
Greater intrinsic motivationGreater mastery of principles and conceptsGreater development of communication skillsBetter attitudes toward teachers and schoolsBetter attitudes toward classmates (including opposite sex and minorities)Higher self-esteem and mental health
Attunement
taking perspective of the student and using student interest and input to guide teaching
Not Autonomy Support
Rewards (symbolic and tangible)PraiseThreatsCompetitionSurveillanceDeadlinesEvaluationImposed goals
Deci 1981 Field Study - Impact of Teacher Style
Method: arge sample of public schoolsMeasured teacher's regulatory style and student's intrinsic motivation in October and May using vignettes -> looked at correlation between teacher style and student motivationResults: IM higher throughout the year, same as cognitive competence and general self worth
Research on Benefits of Choice
Children's rating of a video game were much higher in personalization and choice conditionsAlso led to higher motivation and performanceEven when choices are trivial, the experience of being able to choose does something to us phenomenologically - makes us feel better
Sheena Iyengar
Published a study that showed that for some kids, the best possible condition is when someone tells them that their mom wants them to do a certain taskShe thinks that personal choice means something very different when you are from a culture that is more collectivistic
Iyengar & Lepper (1999)
Method: 4th-6th graders asked to work on anagram task (1/2 Anglo, 1/2 Asian), 3 conditions of choice: personal, experimenter, mom Results: Anglo American did best on personal, Asian American did best on mom
Iyengar and Lepper #2
Method: 10 year olds from Anglo or Asian American families play Space Quest Math Game, choices made in 3 ways: personal, ingroup, outgroupResults: Anglo liked personal choice best, Asian liked In-group choices best
Bao & Lamm (2009)
Method: Chinese 5th graders in Hong Kong assigned to personal choice or mother choice Results: For someone from collectivistic cultures, it is possible to feel like you are autonomous even when you are being guided by your parents
Arranged Marriages
End up reporting higher happiness over the long termBUT arranged marriages differ in how much autonomy is involved -> it is a continuum
forced marriage
no choice, mostly economic, quite rare
traditional arranged marriage
parents choose marital partner, you have option to veto particular choices
modern arranged marriages
parents are heavily involved in finding a selection of possible partners - possible to feel fully autonomous
modern arranged marriage with courtship
prospective partners date for a while
introduction only arranged marriage
parents just come up with a list of possible partners
Cultural Internalization
process by which cultural beliefs and practices are adopted by the individual and then enacted in the absence of immediate external contingencies or constraints -> Taking in guidelines, regulations and values n a way where you carry them out without external motivation
Deci and Ryan's theory of internalization
1. children are willing and active participants in the process 2. there are different processes by which internalization occurs 3. these different internalization processes result in qualitatively different styles of self-regulation 4. the social context influences which internalization and regulatory style occurs
Introjection
Taking in and "swallowing" the values and standards of others without accepting them as one's own - results in feelings of alienation, occurs most when parents are authoritarian
Identification and Integration
fully assimilating a regulation with one's core sense of self- occurs most with autonomy supportive parents
Downie et al 2004
method: measured internalization through a list of activitiesresults: Specific links between internalization of each culture and affect in those cultural settings Internalization -> positive affect while in cultural setting Introjected/rejected -> negative affect while in cultural settingSignificant association between bi-cultural integration and global well being Confirmed by peer reports
Study: Why are some immigrants better able to internalize and integrate their multiple cultures?
method: measured parents' autonomy support re culture and used vignettes findings: Autonomy-support was significantly associated with autonomous internalization of heritage cultureInternalization of heritage cultural values was associated with better well-beingInternalization of host cultural values was also significantly associated with better well being
Study 2: Chinese Malaysian Sojourners to US, Canada, UK, Australia:
Findings: Even though not interacting with heritage culture or reminded of it, how you internalize your heritage culture was significantly an powerfully related to how they adapted to their new country Heritage culture is part of ourselves - makes it hard if it is confused and ambivalentAutonomy -support was significantly associated with autonomous internalization of heritage cultureInternalization of heritage cultural values was significantly associated with better adjustment for all participants
Conclusion of Downie Studies
- experiences of autonomy are critical to the successful adaptation of immigrants because they promote successful cultural internalization and integration
Cultural Relativism
the principle that an individual's beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that individual's own culture
Deci and Ryan view on cultural guidelines
ome cultural guidelines are antithetical to our basic psychological needs - cannot be internalized - e.g. bride kidnapping
other key results from Downie studies
- The context of cultural values do differ across heritage countries Communal and individualistic cultural guidelines are easy to integrate- Vertical (hierarchical) practices were by far the most difficult to integrate -> People can only introject themThis is true for bi-cultural and mono-cultural individuals
Indicators of growing up "poor
Don't own homeMove frequentlySingle parentLive with relativesPublic assistanceFood stampsCharity clothesExposure to violence and drugs
allostatic load
the long-term negative impact of the stress response on the body
Recent recent on poverty and children
There is a direct relationship between the # of years that children have been living in poverty and with allostatic load - and certain indicators of lagging behind in cognitive functionFunctions affected: Working memory Executive function Language abilitiesMake it hard to plan, regulate emotions, communicate
Scaffolding
Process in which teachers/parents model how to solve a problem, and then step back, offering support as needed -> "serve and volley" process
Key Concepts of SDT
two growth processes: intrinsic motivation and internalization three necessary conditions: connectedness, competence, autonomy
Parental involvement: 3 critical features
Child-centeredAchievement-orientedResponsibility training
child language study
method: measured # of words directed at a child by age of 4 results: Professional: 45 milWorking class: 26 milWelfare: 13 mil
Study: Would greater income make a difference?
method: 8 year study of 1400 children - 25% came into extra moneyresults: for families with financial infusion, the children started doing better - their trajectory started to change -> mediating mechanism was increased time spent with child
Motivational risks of growing up in a wealthy family
- hyper-parenting -> no autonomy
ego involvement
feelings of self-worth depend on certain levels of good performance - parents self worth becomes transferred to child's attainments, especially when competition and responsibility are highlighted
How do children of wealthy families turn out?
- wealthier kids score higher on depression, anxiety and substance use - mediating mechanisms: excessive parental pressure for achievement, isolation from parents
Key Features of Hyper-Parenting
1. Ego-involvement in child's goals2. Micro-managing child's development3. Over-scheduling of enrichment activities
The American Dream
the ideal that every US citizen should have an equal opportunity to achieve success and prosperity through hard work, determination and initiative- but US is highly materialistic - emphasizes some values that people from other countries do not agree with
Amish people
Core values of "The simple Life": 1. Community and family2. Humility 3. Religious
George Brown 2002: On the Cultural Origins of Depression
depression holds a pivotal position in understanding what is wrong with society. While sadness, unhappiness and grief are inevitable, this is not true of depression...its origins are closely linked to the quality of core social roles
Kasser on Depression
depression related to whether we can satisfy our basic psychological needs -> Old fashioned, conformist people may be doing something that protects them
Kasser's Exploration of the Values underlying the American Dream
argues that lower well-being is associated with having extrinsic goals focused on rewards, praise & competition relatively central to one's personality in comparison to intrinsic goals that are congruent with inherent grown tendencies
The Starlet
reality show about young actresses with aspirations to become a star -> sends "subliminal message about the fleeting nature of beauty & stardom" -> shows darker American values - hints that what they want will destroy them
Kasser's Framework (2002)
2 broad classes of aspirations distinguished on basis of content
extrinsic aspirations
depend on contingent reaction of others and are typically engaged in as means to an end- money (rewards), fame (competition), appealing image (praise)
intrinsic aspirations
expressive of natural growth tendencies and are likely to satisfy basic psychological needs- close relationships, community involvement, personal growth
Kasser & Ryan 1993 Study 1
Method: Community adults aged 18-79 completed surveys of aspirations and well-being, measured: Self-actualization Vitality Depression Physical symptomsResults: significant relationships between aspirations and well-being
2004 Meta-Analysis by Kasser
144 studies from all continents, 52% from North AmericaMean effect size of extrinsic aspirations with distress, r = .20Confirms Kasser's initial idea
STudy: Does it matter whether you achieve your aspirations?
Method: 200 young adults contacted one year after graduationAssessed aspirations, wellbeingFollow up at 1 year to assess attainment of aspirations, need satisfaction, and changes in well-being - having broad focus does guide behaviour -> leads you to succeed, but may obtain things that you are not looking forResults: Extrinsic: WB decreasedIntrinsic: WB decreased
Sheldon & Krieger 2014: Expressing aspirations in behaviour
method: Asked people how important certain values were, then asked what they were doingresults: gap especially for intrinsic aspirations: people did not act on theseConsistency between importance and enactment was highly related to better functioning
Kasser recommendations
we cannot altogether abandon the pursuit of extrinsic rewards -> should instead make sure that our focus on these aspirations is moderate and outweighed by intrinsic aspirations and be aware of factors that drive us toward materialistic values
Dr. Ross Story
Story about a doctor from Winnipeg who gave patients an ultimatum: either quit smoking or find another doctorPositive response from patients30 patients quit because of him, only 3 leftMany smokers must have tried to hide it - extrinsic motivation to push - patients must have felt ashamed and weak Only works in short term
Dr. Geoff Williams
2 basic ideas: - patient motivation is part of doctor's job - hw doctors interact with patients has a major impact on their motivation
smoking video
70% of smoker want to quit, only 20-30% want to quit soonSmokers reduce their life by 14.5 yearsConstantly having to push the consequences out of their mind40% of smokers try to quit each year - many do not go for intensive services, which makes it harder counselling and medication help a lot
2 key motivational concepts
autonomous motivation and autonomy support
autonomous motivation
feeling a sense of volition and choice in one's behaviourMore likely to succeed if you feel autonomous motivation
autonomy support
Taking and acknowledging patient's perspectiveProviding choicesProviding meaningful rationale
specifics of autonomy support:
Make eye contactAsk open-ended questionsListen carefullyDo not interruptEncourage initiation and involvementProvide a rationale for your suggestions
Williams: Smoking Cessation
method: 40 year old smokers meeting with doctor - coded doctor's motivational interview for autonomy support -> encouraging questions, taking perspectives, providing choices results: 10% of participants had quit smoking continually through 18 monthsDoctors who were more autonomy supportive led to better resultsAutonomy support -> autonomous motivation -> abstinence
Williams: Medication Non-Compliance
method: same study but with those with hypertension, measured with pill countresults: Same mediational model -> people who felt there doctors were more autonomy supportive, felt more volitional, higher levels of adherence
Williams: Diabetes Management
Perception of autonomy support -> autonomous reasons -> better glucose control
Review
Motivation plays an important role in health settingsYour interpersonal behaviour can foster autonomous motivation and better health outcomes
Nalini Ambady
- researched malpractice law suits, coded small clips for dominance/warmth - Found that she could clearly identify which doctors had been sued for malpractice -> the ones high on dominance and low on warmth
Anorexia
1 of 4 forms of eating disorder1% prevalencePrimarily occurs in adolescenceHighest adolescent death rateHighly resistant to change- characterized by: denial, minimization, secrecy
Maudsley Family Based Treatment
Family as a resourceParents take charge of refeedingSiblings offer supportNo blameSeparation of disorder and adolescent
Anorexia motivational issues to consider
Ambivalence and resistance (denial)Autonomy and controlIntrojection and compulsionsstructure and continued autonomy support
three stages of FBT
Return to previous weightGradual return to adolescent control of eatingGradual exploration of identity and autonomy issues
Change mechanism of FBT
anorexia is a phobia, FBT is structured exposureDecreasing ambivalenceIncreasing autonomy
Problem with FBT
Very successful at stage 1But many patients and families have difficulty with the transition to independent eating Maintenance of cognitive symptoms Maintenance of safety behavioursPossible solution: Add treatment elements that promote motivation to change
Motivational Interviewing applied to anorexia FBT
- parents coached in MI - thought to facilitate motivation to change
Motivational Interviewing
founded by Dr. William Miller & Dr. Stephan Rollnick - patient centered and directive - series of open questions followed by active listening
Stages of Change
1. Precontemplation2. Contemplation3. Preparation4. Action5. Maintenance6. Termination
motivational interviewing pros
Compatible with individual differences in ambivalenceSuitable for mandated treatmentsBrief : Does not cure the problem, but is a good beginning stepTrainableNon-confrontational
4 Principles of MI
1. Express empathy2. Develop discrepancy3. Roll with resistance4. Support self-efficacy
4 techniques of MI
Open-ended questionsAffirmationsReflective listeningSummaries
meta-analysis: motivational interviewing and adolescents
substance use: d= .20 non substance use: d = .35 - long-term follow ups show that gains are maintained
Sheldon and Krieger's Description of the Life of a lawyer
Characterized by: Depression Anxiety Substance abuse Career dissatisfaction
Krieger's Hypotheses
intense pressure and competitive success norms reorient students away from positive personal interests and values and towards rewards and more image based values, leading to a loss of self esteem, life satisfaction and well being.
What is law school like?
- focus on competition, rank and status - excessively abstract, analytical teaching- isolating and intimidating teaching practices
Research Design to Examine the Motivational Effects of Law School
method: follow over 600 students at two large law schools from first year until grad -> one school competitive, other is student-centered, assess motivational, academic and WB outcomesresults: - dramatic and significant drop in WB< life values, motivation adn need satisfaction - Students at the high prestige law school experienced the more dramatic damaging changes- The kids from the moderate ranked school outperformed the students form the higher ranked school on the bar exam -> those from higher prestige school were burned out
Do the changes in the motivational variable mediate the drop in well being?
Yes: correlations with decrease in well being: Decrease in intrinsic values, r = .17 Decrease in autonomous motivation, r = .19 Decrease in need satisfaction, r = .21*
Are the high prestige lawyers happier in the future?
No -> Lower job satisfaction Do not want their children to go into the profession
Being Autonomous Amidst Controls
Causality orientation: Be an autonomous personPromoting one's own development: Find supports - use peers to cope with situation Managing your managerManage one's own experiences Emotion regulation Awareness and flexibility -> be mindful and aware of what is happening to you Behaviour regulation -> feedback and flexibility