Psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Dualism
the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact
Monism
the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing
Empiricism
the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation
Structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind. Small elements of the mind.
Introspection
examination of one's own thoughts and feelings to certain images and media
stream of consciousness
Instead of structures, looks at the continues flow of consciousness. (William James)
Functionalism
A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Theory of Evolution
states that organisms change and develop over time to adapt an increase rate of survival
talking cure/psychoanalysis
the idea that simple conversation (thoughtful, attentive) between human being can relieve some ailments (Freud's idea)
latent
hidden, present but not realized
Law of Effect (Thorndike)
behavior followed by satisfying consequences would then be repeated
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Radical Behaviorism
the philosophical position that free will is an illusion or myth and that human and animal behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic influences
Gestalt Psychology
a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
Psychoanalytic
study of the unconscious, includes childhood and aggression issues (ID, superego, and ego)
Cognitive Approach
An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.
humanistic approach
An approach to psychology emphasizing a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny.
heirarchy of needs
Maslow's concept that individual needs must be satisfied in this sequence; physiological, safety, love, and belongingness, esteem, and self actualization.
Sociocultural Approach
An approach to psychology that examines the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior.
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
Nature vs. Nurture
name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior
equilibration
the process by which children (or other people) balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding
Assimilation (psychology)
the process by which new information is interpreted in terms of existing schemata
accommodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
Schemas
Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.
Biological Domain
humans are, first and foremost, collections of biological systems, and these systems provide the building blocks for behavior, thought, and emotion
Clinical Domain
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Cognitive Domain
how though processes influence behavior
Counceling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. No mental illness
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
educational domain
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
Experimental Domain
Studies behavior and thinking using the experimental method
industrial-organizational psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
personality domain
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
Psychometric Psychology
The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and personality traits
social domain
the domain that focuses on an individual's relationships within family, social groups, and the community
Positive Domain
focuses on positive aspects and strengths of human behavior
correlational studies
Studies in which the investigator analyzes the relationships among variables that were in place before the study, without manipulating those variables.
positive vs negative correlation
Both variables increase or decrease at the same time vs. one variable increases while the other decreases
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
3rd variable problem
third factor that effects results. Reason why you cannot prove causality (cause and effect) from correlation
descriptive research
research conducted to clarify the characteristics of certain phenomena to solve a particular problem
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
case study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
social desirability bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
longitudinal study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
cross-sectional study
A study in which a representative cross section of the population (different ages) is tested or surveyed at one specific time.
cohort effect
effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time
wording effects
...
empirical data
evidence from observation, experiment, or experience.
methodology
a system of methods used in a particular area of study or activity. Detailed and Specific procedure and definitions.
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
experimental method
A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another factor.
population
all people who can potentially be studied and participate in a study
generalize
draw from specific cases for more general cases
representative sample
a subset of a population that closely matches the overall characteristics of the population
sampling bias
A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.
stratified sampling
a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups and weighted based on demographic characteristics of the national population
external validity
extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance
internal validity
extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study between IV and DV
confounding variable
in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect
Single Blind Study vs. Double Blind Study
Single: subject doesn't know if they are experimental or control groupDouble: The subject and the researcher doesn't know who's in which group
random assignment vs random selection
Random Assignment-Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by random assignment. Experiments Random Selection- Selected from the larger population. In this selection process, each member of a group stands and equal chance of being chosen as a participant in the study. Correlation and surveys
hindsight bias
I knew it all along phenomenon
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
discrete data
Data with space between possible data values. cannot be divided. EX2 people. descriptive stats
Interval Data
differences between values can be found, but is NO absolute ZERO. Examples: temperature F, time continuous
ratio data
data with an absolute 0. Ratios are meaningful. (Length, Width, Weight, Distance) continuous
Nominal Data
a type of data that is a unique identifier of some kind. If numerical, the differences between numbers are not significant. numbers are names. discrete
ordinal data
a type of data that refers solely to a ranking of some kind. discrete
continuous data
Data that can take on any value.
central tendency
mean, median, mode (descriptive)
Varability
describes the spread of the data. range SD
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
standard deviation
a measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean
left scewed, right scewed, normal, bimodal
see notes
inferential statistics
numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance
p-value. When is it not chance?
The probability of results of the experiment being attributed to chance. < or = to .05
null hypothesis
no correlation
z-score
a measure of how many standard deviations you are away from the norm (average or mean)
percentile rank
the percentage of scores below a certain point
asset
checking in on kids during an experiment
Hawthrone Effect/ Observer effect
A type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.