1. sensory receptor2. afferent sensory (often pseudounipolar) neuron3. integrating centre in CNS4. Efferent motor neuron5. Effector (muscle or gland)
List the components of a reflex arc
In ganglia in the PNS
Where are the cell bodies of sensory neurons found?
In the CNS, in the spinal cord or brain
Where are the cell bodies of motor neurons found?
gyri, sulci
What are the folds of the brain and the gaps between them called respectively (plural)?
cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum
Name A to D - the four general main regions of the brain
frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital, insula
Name 1 to 5 (lobes)
precentral gyrus, central sulcus, postcentral gyrus
Name 1 to 3
The primary motor cortex, controls much of the somatic motor function
Function of precentral gyrus
The somatosensory cortex, receives much of the somatic sensory information
Function of postcentral gyrus
the corpus callosum
What connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain?
at the brainstem
Where do axons cross over between the spinal cord and the brain
longitudinal fissure
What is a name for the gap between the right and left hemispheres of the brain?
Motor control, receiving proprioceptive information to maintain balance and posture, storage of repeated and learned movement
What are some of the chief functions of the cerebellum?
L1-L2. It is the terminal of the true spinal cord, after which the spinal cord branches out
Where is the conus medullaris found? What is it?
groups of axons inferior to the conus medullaris, a continuation of the spinal cord
What is the cauda equina?
It is part of the pia mater, one of the meninges. It continues on past the cauda equina and anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx
What is the filum terminale?
31
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there in total?
8
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there in the cervical region?
12
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there in the thoracic region?
5
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there in the lumbar region
5
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there in the sacral region?
1
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there in the coccygeal region?
Above and including C7, spinal nerves are named after the vertebra ABOVE which they exit;Below and including C8, spinal nerves are named after the vertebra BELOW which they exit
How are the spinal nerves named?
This is where many nerves that supply the upper limb exit and enter
Why is there an enlargement of the spinal cord around vertebra C6?
cell bodies, unmyelinated axons, dendrites, glial cells
Name the contents of grey matter
myelinated axons
Name the contents of white matter
posterior/dorsal horn,sensory infomation,grey matter,white matter,central canal,lateral horn (only in T1-L2 region)anterior/ventral horn,gray commissure (corpus callosum of spinal cord)
Name 1 to 8
contains somatic sensory axons and interneuron cell bodies - input for sensory information;also input for visceral sensory information
functions of dorsal horn
somatic motor neuron cell bodies
functions of ventral horn
dorsal root, dorsal rootlets (sensory neuron axons), dorsal root ganglion (sensory cell bodies), ventral root, ventral rootlets (motor neuron axons), spinal nerve
fill the blanks
Both afferent and efferent - they are mixed nerves
Which way do spinal nerves transmit information?
satellite cells
What is the name of the glial cells which wrap around and support the sensory neural cell bodies in ganglia?
intervertebral foramen
spinal nerves exit through the _______ (fill the blank)
axon,myelin sheath,endoneurium (around axon),perineurium (around fascicle),epineurium (around nerve)
Do the thing
posterior ramus (pl. rami),anterior ramus,rami communicans,sympathetic trunk ganglion
Fill the blanks 1 to 4
a network of condensed interweaving anterior rami of spinal nerves
Define nervous plexus
cervical plexus, brachial plexus, lumbar plexus, sacral pexus
Name the principal plexuses
musculocutaneous,axillary,radial,median,ulnar
0
olfactory,optic,occulumotor,trochlear,trigeminal,abducens,facial,vestibulocochlear,glossopharyngeal,vagus,accessory,hypoglossal
Name the cranial nerves
3-8 weeks after conception
During what time of gestation is the embryonic period?
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
What are the layers of the embryonic disc?
epidermis, external structures of the skin, nervous system
Broadly, what arises from the ectoderm?
The GI tract, respiratory tract, endocrine system, urinary system
Broadly, what arises from the endoderm?
notochord, paraxial mesoderm (somites) which develop into dermis, muscle and bones, head mesenchyme which develops into muscles and connective tissue of the face
Broadly, what arises from the mesoderm?
somite,neural tube,myotome,sclerotome,dermatome
Fill the blanks
The spinal cord
What does the neural tube become?
Myotomes during embryonic development are part of nodules called somites which run in pairs along the neural tube in the midline of the embryo. They develop into muscle. Each myotome is innervated by the same single spinal nerve.
What is a myotome?
C5
Which spinal nerve generally innervates arm abducters?
C8
Which spinal nerve generally innervates finger flexors?
T1
Which spinal nerve generally innervates finger adductors and abductors?
C(5)6
Which spinal nerve generally innervates elbow flexors?
C(6)7(8)
Which spinal nerve generally innervates elbow extensors?
During embryonic development, dermatomes are part of somites. They become regions of skin innervated by a single spinal nerve
What is a dermatome?
regions that are, most of the time, innervated by a single spinal nerve only with no crossover
What are the autonomous zones of the skin?
The regimental badge region - just below the deltoid on the lateral side of the arm
What is the autonomous zone for C5
the thumb
What is the autonomous zone for C6
tip of the index finger
What is the autonomous zone for C7
tip of the little finger
What is the autonomous zone for C8
anterior/medial elbow
What is the autonomous zone for T1
Upper limbs
Which limb buds emerge first?
laterally
Which way do the upper limbs rotate during embryonic development?
This is due to the torsion of the limb during development
Why don't the dermatomes of the limbs develop in a linear pattern, like the trunk of the body?
medially
Which way do the lower limbs rotate during embryonic development?
from ventral and dorsal muscle masses
From what do the individual muscles of the limbs form?
muscle spindle,golgi tendon organ
Name 2 proprioceptors
These have modified nerve endings that detect stretch in muscles and send signals to the brain
How do muscle spindles work
These are protective to the tendon. They have modified nerve endings and detect tendon stretch. They send signals to the brain about the level of stretch. If stretch is too great, their signals are interpreted in the brain and trigger inhibition of further muscle contraction
How do golgi tendon organs work?
Pectoralis major.These muscles have many fibres which all come together and connect onto a single tendon
Name 1 example of a convergent muscle and describe the main features of this muscle type
biceps brachii.The muscle has a fusiform shape. Tendons sit at either end and fibres run in parallel the entire length. Sometimes lumped together with parallel
Name 1 example of a fusiform muscle and describe the main features of this muscle type
Deltoid m.May look similar to convergent, but has tendons throughout and fibres coming in at an angle. Generates power and is considered the strongest type
Name 1 example of a multipennate muscle and describe the main features of this muscle type
Sartorius.This type of muscle has the greatest range of motion, but produces less power. muscle fibres run along entire length
Name 1 example of a parallel muscle and describe the main features of this muscle type
Rectus femoris.The tendon runs through the whole muscle. Fibres come in at an angle. This type of muscle has more muscle cells than a fusiform muscle and therefore produces more power, but has a smaller range of motion
Name 1 example of a bipennate muscle and describe the main features of this muscle type
1) produces movement2) maintains posture and body position3) maintains body temperature4) protects and supports soft tissue5) forms valves at the openings of the body
What are the functions of muscle?
sarcolemma,sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR),terminal cisternae of SR,Triad,Transverse (T) tubule,Mitochondria
Fill the blanks
tail,head,two heavy chains,light chain
Fill the blanks
Titin extends from the M line to the Zline, through the core of the thickfilament. It is an elastic fibre whichstabilises the sarcomere and provideselastic recoil following muscle stretch
What is titin and where does it sit in the sarcomere
sarcomere,M-line,H-zone,Z-line/disc,myofibril,Titin,thick filament,myosin molecule,myosin tail,myosin head
Fill the blanks
troponin complex,tropomyosin,actin
Fill the blanks
Covers the active sites on actin; stabilises and strengthens the thinfilament
What is the function of tropomyosin in skeletal muscle?
troponin I (TnI) binds actintroponin T (TnT) binds tropomyosintroponin (TnC) C binds Ca2+
Name the components of the troponin complex and their function
Dystropin links thin filamentsto integral proteins ofsarcolemma, through acomplex structure called acostamere
What is dystrophin and its function?
Nebulin anchors and stabilises thethin filament, while titin anchorsand stabilises the thick filament
What is the function of nebulin?
anchor for thin filamentsand boundary between sarcomeres
describe the z-disc
center of sarcomere, anchoringthe thick filaments
describe the M-line
thin filaments only (bright band)
describe the I band
thick filaments (dark band)
describe the A band
area at center of sarcomerewhere the thick and thin filaments donot overlap (thick filaments only)
describe the H-zone
the neuromuscular junction (NMJ)
What is the site of communication between nerve and muscle?
IN response to an action potential,acetylecholine (ACh) isreleased from the motor neuron's presynaptic terminal. This binds to cholinergic receptors (ligand-gated Na channel) and provokes an action potential in the motor end plate.The action potential travels over sarcolemma, depolarising the T tubules
Provide a brief description
They are present in the T-tubule. They are L-type voltage-gated Calcium channels which open in response to action potentials from motor neurons.
What are Dihydropyridine (DHP) receptors?
These are present on the terminal cisternae of the SR. They are Calcium-activated calcium channels, which open either as a direct result of DHP activation, because of physical coupling to DHP receptors (DHP acts like a cork for RYR, which is removed upon DHP activation) or because of the calcium influx caused by DHP activation calcium influx (CICR - calcium induced calcium release). This happens simultaneously in skeletal muscle, as some RYR are coupled DHP and some aren't. The result is a rapid elevation of calcium in the sarcoplasm.
What are Ryanodine (RYR) receptors? How do they work to quickly elevate intracellular calcium levels?
In skeletal muscle only
Where are DHP and RYR physically coupled?
Ca2+ binds to troponin (at TnC), on the thin filamentTroponin-Ca2+ complex changes position, pullingtropomyosin (at TnT) away from the active sites on actin (TnI unbinds from actin).Cross bridges then form between actin and myosin
Describe how high intracellular [Ca2+] leads to cross-bridge formation with a focus on the troponin complex
-myosin binds ATP and hydrolyses it via ATPase into ADP+Pi. Myosin stores the energy from this reaction and is now activated-Myosin, in its high-energy state binds to actin-The power stroke occurs, where myosin 'pulls' the actin strand-following the powerstroke the Pi and then the ADP detach, but myosin remains attached to actin-a new ATP attaches to myosin, causing it to unbind from actin-myosin, again, hydrolyses ATP to ADP + Pi and stores the energy for the next attachment-myosin either reattaches, or remains in the high energy state until the binding site on actin is exposed again
Describe one full cross-bridge cycle starting from the activation of myosin
1) Cross bridge formation2) Power (working) stroke3) Cross bridge detachment4) Myosin heads reset
The cross bridge cycle may also be described by the 'sliding filament theory'. What are its steps?
Stimulation at the NMJ endsACh is rapidly degraded by acetylcholinesterase(AChE) and recycledThe nerve terminal may also re-uptake AChCa2+ is re-sequestered in the SR via thesarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase, "SERCA"Troponin-tropomyosin cover the active site on actinCross bridges can no longer form
After excitation seizes, describe what happens in the muscle during relaxation (from NMJ to filaments)
Calcium leaks into sarcoplasm from SRCross-bridge formation occursabsence of ATP prevents detachment of myosin from actin and also reuptake of calcium into SR by sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase (SERCA)
What happens in rigor mortis?
dense bodie (focal density/dense plaque),intermediate filament (desmin),single nucleus,thick filament,thin filament
Fill the blanks
motor neuron signal causes a depolarisation in smooth muscle sarcolemmaVGLTCa2+ channels openClacium influx from ECFCalcium binds to calmodulin and activates itcalmodulin activates myosin light-chain kinasemyosin light-chain kinase catalyses phosphorylation of myosin headconformational change in the myosin head allow it to undergo cross-bridge cyclingmyosin head is in high energy statemyosin attaches to already exposed actin binding sitepowerstroke occurs and thin filaments pull dense bodies together to contract the muscle cell
Describe the steps of smooth muscle contraction from the motor neuron signal
voltage-gated L-type Calcium channel,Inositol triphosphate (IP3) receptor,calmodulin,myosin light-chain kinase,
Fill the blanks
-intracellular calcium drops due to loss of signal-calcium is mostly moved out of the cell into ECF (by ATPase), Some is sequestered in SR.-Calcium dissociated from calmodulin and calmodulin becomes inactive.-Myosin light chain phosphatase dephosphorylates myosin.-Myosin detaches from actin, breaking the cross-bride. -Muscle relaxes
Describe the relaxation of a smooth muscle cell
Multi-unit: -individually innervated and can act independently,-no direct communication between neighbouring cells- fine control scuh as in ciliary muscle (adjusts the shape of the lens in the eye)Single unit:-one nerve innervates multiple cells-cells are joined by gap junctions and desmosomes and act uniformaly as there is electrical communication-found in more grossly moving anatomy such as viscera
What are the main structural differences between single-unit smooth muscle and multi unit smooth muscle?
• Hundred of fibres act as one unit• Fibres arranged in sheets/bundles• Gap junctions allow transmission ofions and action potentials• May lack connection with a motorneuron• May show rhythmic cycles of activitycontrolled by pacemaker cells• Examples:•Walls of most viscera (gut, bileducts, ureters, uterus, walls ofblood vessels)
Name some more features of single-unit smooth muscle including examples
Discrete fibres operatingindependently• Innervated by motor neurons(often single nerve)• Slow contraction• Examples:• Ciliary and Iris muscles of eye• Large airways and largearteries• Piloerector muscle
Name some more features of multi-unit smooth muscle including examples
Strength of stimulus,frequency of stimulus,muscle length relative to resting length,size of muscle fibre
Name 4 factors contributing to muscle tension
Due to level of overlap of actin and myosin and subsequent ability to form cross-bridges and due to the amount of shortening possible
Why is length of the resting sarcomere important to muscle power?
80-120% of resting length
What is the optimal muscle length for tension?
slightly stretched
Which muscle is more powerful: slightly stretched or slightly contracted?
1 alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibres which it innervates
Define "motor unit
Depending on the muscle between 2 (very fine control - larynx) and ~3000 (very strong muscle - gastrocnemius)
How many fibres/myocytes does 1 motor unit innervate?
In a single motor unit every single muscle cell will contract when the motor neuron is excited
What determines how many fibres in a motor unit contract?
Contraction of a single motor unit due to a single AP
What is a "muscle twitch
latent period,contraction period,relaxation period
Fill the blanks
Neural stimulation ends and calcium is re-sequestered into SR
What triggers the switch from the contraction to the relaxation period?
A phenomenon observed in muscles which have been at rest for a long period. Contraction force increases for stimuli of the same strength with successive twitches
What is the Treppe/staircase effect?
Resting calcium levels in sarcoplasm increase after every twitch,twitches create heat which provides optimal temperature for Myosin ATPase
Why does the staircase effect occur?
increase frequency of stimulation to motor unit, increase strength of stimulus to muscle
What are the two ways to increase muscle contraction (at a given length)
single twitch,unfused tetanus,fused tetanus
What are the stages of wave summation with increasing frequency?
twitch,wave summation,unfused/incomplete tetanus,fused/complete tetanus
Name the steps
The stronger the stimulus, the more motor units engage
How does increasing the NERVE stimulus increase contraction?
small
Which size motor units are recruited first?
threshold
What is the minimal stimulus for motor unit engagement called?
axon diameter (bigger = high threshold)
What determines threshold level for a motor neuron?
An increase in tension with a constant fibre length (iso = same; metric = length)
What is an isometric contraction?
A change in length with a constant tension (iso = same' tonic = tone/tension)
What is an isotonic contraction?
Cable pulls
Think of an isotonic exercise
plank and add weight to back
Think of an isometric exercise
Muscle shortens while doing work
What is a concentric contraction?
Muscle lengthens while doing work
What is an eccentric contraction?
eccentric contraction
What kind of isotonic contraction damages muscles the most
speed and distance of movement declines
What happens to a concentric contraction with the same force as load is added?
Stored ATP:Hydrolised ATP stored in myosin heads,ATP in sarcoplasm,Synthesised ATP:Creatine phosphate,Glycolysis,Aerobic respiration
List the sources for ATP
Creatine phosphate is dephosphorylated to phosphorylate ADP to ATP. This happens at a 1:1 ratio
How does creatine phosphate replenish ATP?
-15s-30-60s-Hours
What is duration of energy provided respectively by:creatine phosphate, glycolysis, cellular respiration?
-energy from stored ATP in muscles-ATP from CP(creatine phosphate)-glycolysis (anaerobic)-cellular respiration
Fill the blanks
No oxygen required
What is the advantage of the initial energy sources?
Type I - slow oxidativeType IIB - fast glycolyticType IIA - fast oxidative glycolytic
Fill the blanks
slow,slow,aerobic,high,low,first,slow (fatigue-resistant),endurance (running long distance, maintaining posture),red,small (faster O2 diffusion),many,many
Fill the blanks
fast,fast,aerobic (some anaerobic glycolysis),high,intermediate,second,intermediate,sprinting and walking,red to pink,intermediate,many,many
Fill the blanks
fast,fast,anaerobic,low,high,third,fast,short-term powerful movements,white,large,few (anaerobic so less need),few (anaerobic so less need)
Fill the blanks
A protein which delivers oxygen in muscle and gives muscle its red colour
What is myoglobin?
physiological inability to contract even though themuscle is still being stimulated
What is peripheral muscle fatigue?
ATP depletion,lactic acid build-up from anaerobic glycolysis,damage to SR,buildup of K+ in T-tubules,microscopic damage
What are some of the factors thought to be causes for peripheral muscle fatigue (this is not completely understood)?
This is the sustained elevation in heart rate and respiration to replenish depleted oxygen stores and oxygen required to replenish: ATP, creatine phosphate, glycogen, pyruvate from lactate (cori cycle)
What is the oxygen debt?
Lactic acid in blood filtered in liver -> gluconeogenesis converts lactate into glucose (using energy from beta-oxidation) -> glucose is stored as glycogen or/and then used in anaerobic glycolysis in muscle and yields lactate -> repeat
Very briefly describe the Cori cycle
Following high intesity exercise, muscles increase in size due to cells size increase (not number)
Briefly describe muscular hypertrophy
Muscle repair after injury uses satellite cells which differentiate into new muscle cells
How is hypertrophy different from muscle replacement after injury?
Reduction in size and number of myocytes
What happens in muscle atrophy?
Generalised muscle wasting associated with diseases
What is cachexia?
Muscle wasting due to aging
What is sarcopenia?
-Support-Protection-Movement-Mineral&storage release-Blood cell production-Hormone production-Triglyceride storage
Name some functions of bone
-Cancellous-Compact bone
What are the main 2 types of mature bone
compact bone,cancellous bone,trabecula
Fill the blanks
35%, 65%
What is the percentage of organic and inorganic substance in bone respectively?
The inorganic material lends rigidity and compression strength to bone, the organic component is necessary to maintain and remodel bone and also provide minor flexibility and tensile strength which stops bone from breaking when under force
Explain why the inorganic/organic composition is conducive to bone function
-cells-collagen fibres-ground substance
What are some of organic components of bone
bone salts: hydroxyapatite - calcium phosphate and hydroxide
What are some of the inorganic components of bone?
osteoclast,osteoprogenitor,osteoblast,osteocyte
Name the 4 main types of bone cells
These are mesenchymal stem cells found in the periosteum and endosteum which mitotically sustain their own numbers and can make osteoblasts
What is the main function of osteoprogenitor cells?
To produce bone ECM
What is the main function of osteoblasts?
These form lacunae in bone and help maintain the surrounding bone in which they become entrapped
What is the main function of osteocytes?
These are large multinucleate cells which can break down bone and release its materials. This is essential for bone remodelling and repair
What is the main function of osteoclasts?
osteocyte,osteoblast,osteoclast
Fill the blanks
-Haversian/central canal-lamellae-osteocyte-lacuna-canaliculi
Fill the blanks
To provide nervous and blood supply to the bone
What is the function of the Haversian canal?
Similar to Haversian canal, but they also connect different Haversian canals
What is the function of Lateral/perforation/Volkmanns canals?
concentric,circumferential,interstitial
Fill the blanks
The spaces between trabeculae are filled with bone marrow and the canaliculi of the osteocytes within the trabeculae extend out into the bone marrow. This allows for nutrients to be supplied to them.
Cancellous bone is arranged in trabeculae rather than osteons, which means there is no central thread of blood and nerve supply. How then do they access nutrients?
-trabeculae-canaliculi opening at surface-canaliculi-osteocyte in lacuna-osteoclast-lamella-osteoblast
Fill the blanks
-epiphysis-metaphysis-diaphysis-medullary (marrow) cavity-marrow-endosteum-periosteum-fibrous-cellular
Fill the blanks
Yellow (fatty) Bone Marrow
What is the predominant marrow type in longs bones in adults?
Red marrow. This is to sustain the rapid growth of children
What is the predominant marrow type in longs bones in children? Why is this different to adults?
There are often distinctly large nutrient foramina in the diaphysis of long bones; the epiphyses where the joints and a lot of stress are, often have fine but higher blood supply to keep up with higher bone turnover
Describe a couple of major blood supply structures of long bone
intramembranous ossification, endochondral ossification
Name the 2 types of bone formation
Ossification where the template is a fibrous membrane - mostly flat bones of the skull, face and some of the clavicle
Briefly define intramembranous ossification and some of the bones where it happens
This type of ossification arises from a hyaline cartilagenous template - it is the dominant type of ossification and necessary to keep up with fast growth
Briefly define endochondral ossification
By week 8 of embryo development
When does osteogenesis start?
It is the constant adaptation of bone caused by bone deposition of osteoblasts and bone resorption of osteoclasts
What is bone remodelling?
cancellous (3-4 years)compact (~10 years)
Which type of mature bone turns over faster?
-hematoma formation-fibrocartilagenous callous formation-bony callus formation-bone remodelling
What are the 4 stages of bone fracture repair?
The skull, vertebral column, the ribs, and the sacrum
What are the parts of the axial skeleton?
bones of the limbs and girdles (pelvic and pectoral)
What are the parts of the appendicular skeleton?
flat,short,irregular,long
Name the type of bone for each
fossa,condyle,epicondyle,head,tuberosity
Fill the blanks
- Fibrous (held together by collagen fibres)- Cartilaginous (held together by cartilage)- Synovial (bones separated by fluid)
What are the structural joint classes?
- Synarthrosis (immobile)- Amphiarthroses (slightly movable)- Diarthrosis (movable)
What are the functional joint classes?
- sutures (thin layer of CT between bones - synarthrotic)- syndesmosis (band of connective tissue - amphiarthrotic)- interosseus membrane (sheet of connective tissue - amphiarthrotic)
What are the types of fibrous joints?
between bones of the skull
Name an example of a suture
distal tibiofibular joint
Name an example of a syndesmosis
between tibia and fibula
Name an example of a interosseus membrane
- synchondrosis: bones joined by hyaline cartilage (usually synarthrotic)- symphysis: bones joined by pad of fibrocartilage (usually amphiarthrotic)
Name 2 types of cartilagenous joints
costochondral joints (between ribs and sternal cartilage), epiphyseal plate
Name an example of a synchondrosis
pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs
Name an example of a symphysis
- Articular capsule- Outer fibrous membrane- Inner synovial membrane- Synovial capsule- Synovial fluid- Articular cartilage- Ligaments
Fill the blanks
- lubricates and nourishes articular cartilage- absorbs shock
What is the purpose of synovial fluid?
Nutrients enter cartilage through the synovial fluid when it is compressed and relaxes, synovial fluid also removes waste (and from subchondral bone)
Why is movement necessary for articular cartilage
- chondrocytes- collagen (fine type)- Glycosaminoglycans
What are the constituents of articular cartilage?
ligaments connect bones to bonestendons connect bones to muscle
What is the main difference between ligaments and tendons
sacs outside of synovial joints where ligaments, tendons, or bones rub
What is a bursa?
elongated bursae around tendons, particularly in confined areas such as in the wrist and ankle.
What are tendinous sheaths?
Occurs in plane joints, ie between carpals
What is "gliding" movement in synovial joints
flexion in the coronal plane of the neck and back
What is lateral flexion?
flexion, extension
Name the movements
flexion, extension, hyperextension
Name the movements
abduction, adduction
Name the movements
circumduction
Name the movements
rotation
Name the movements
lateral rotation, medial rotation
Name the movements
pronation, supination
Name the movements
dorsiflexion, plantar flexion
Name the movements
inversion, eversion
Name the movements
uniaxial - move in one plane (elbow), biaxial - move in 2 planes (wrist), multiaxial - moves in 3 planes (shoulder)
What are the functional classifications of synovial joints based on planes of movement?
plane,hinge,pivot,condylar,saddle,ball-and-socket
What are the types of synovial joints by shape of articulating surface?
carpals of the wrist,elbow,atlantoaxial joint (between C1 and C2),knee,metacarpophalangeal joint of the thumb,shoulder (glenohumeral)
Name an example for each joint type:plane,hinge,pivot,condylar,saddle,ball-and-socket
The more mobile a joint is, generally, the more unstable. Eg: the shoulder is less stable than the hip joint, but more mobile (which makes sense for their function)
What is the relationship between mobility and stability in joints? Compare 2 joints to explain
cranial bonesfacial bonesPterionparietaloccipitaltemporalmastoid processzygomaticvomermandiblefrontalsphenoidethmoidnasallacrimalmaxilla
Fill the blanks
frontalsphenoidethmoidnasalzygomaticmaxillaparietaltemporallacrimalvomermandiblemental protuberance
Fill the blanks
hard palatemaxillapalatine bonevomersphenoidstyloid processtemporalforamen magnumzygomaticmandibular fossamastoid processoccipital condyleexternal occipital protuberance
Fill the blanks
coronalsquamoussagittallambdoidscalpdiploeduraexternal tableinternal table
Fill the blanks
orbicularis oculipalpebralorbital
Fill the blanks
palpebral muscle closes the eye gently, while the orbital muscle produces a stronger closure
What is the differnce in function between the palpebral and orbital muscle?
procerusnasalistransverse partalar part
Fill the blanks
To draw the eyebrows together
What is the function of the procerus?
To open (alar) and constrict (transverse) the nostrils
What is the function of the nasalis?
orbicularis oris,close mouth and pucker lips
Fill the blanks
Buccinator
Fill the blank
One of the chewing muscles, expulsion of air (Well-developed in trumpet players)
What is the function of the buccinator
Smilingzygomaticus majorzygomaticus minorrisoriusunilateralbilateral
Fill the blanks
pulling up the corners of the mouth
What is the function of the zygomaticus muscles
pulling apart the corners of the mouth laterally
What is the function of the risorius
frowning, drinkingdepressor anguli orismentalis
Fill the blanks
pulling down corners of mouth
What is the function of the depressor anguli oris
pulling down bottom lip (drinking)
What is the function of the mentalis
zygomaticus minorzygomaticus majororbicularis orisbuccinatordepressor anguli oris
Fill the blanks
orbicularis oris + buccinator
What is/are the muscles used here?
zygomaticus major + minor
What is/are the muscles used here?
risorius
What is/are the muscles used here?
orbicularis oris
What is/are the muscles used here?
depressor anguli oris
What is/are the muscles used here?
mentalis
What is/are the muscles used here?
platysma
What is/are the muscles used here?
occipitofrontalisfrontal bellyoccipital bellyaponeurosis
Fill the blanks
wrinkle forehead, raise eyebrows
What is the function of the occipitofrontalis
Platysma
0
Facial nerve (CNVII) and its branches
What is motor nervous supply for the facial muscles?
Trigeminal nerve (CN V)Opthalmic nerve (V1)Maxillary nerve (V2)Mandibular nerve (V3)VertexPosterior RamiAnterior RamiC2C3C4
Fill the blanks
hyoidbodygreater hornlesser horn9
Fill the blanks
Suprahyoid neck muscles
Name the muscle group being pointed to by the arrows
Infrahyoid muscles (strap muscles)
Name the muscle group being pointed to by the arrows
These can lift the hyoid, or If the hyoid is stabilised by the infrahyoids, The suprahyoids will depress the mandible
What is the function of the suprahyoid muscles
From sternum, clavicle, scapula
Where do the infrahyoid muscles originate?
suprahyoid musclesinfrahyoid muscleshyoid
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Facial Nerve (VII)Trigeminal nerve (Mandibular Branch - CNV3)Anterior ramus of C1
What is the innervation for the suprahyoids?
anterior rami of C1-3 through ansa cervicalis
What is the innervation for infrahyoids?
ansa cervicalis
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Splenius capitis & cervicis
Name 1
Semispinalis capitis & longissimus capitis
Name 2
Sternocleidomastoid (SCM)
Name 3
Sternocleidomastoid (SCM) + Scalenes
Name 4
Splenius capitis and cervicis
Name 5 (same side)
SCM, scalenes
Name 6 (opposite side)
Sternocleidomastoid (SCM)
Name the muscle
Scalenesposteriormiddleanterior
Fill the blanks
anterior triangleposterior triangle
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internal jugular veinfacial arteryexternal carotid arteryinternal carotid arterycarotid sinuscommon carotid arteryscalenes
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facial veinVagus nerve (CNX)internal jugular veinPhrenic nerve (C3-C5)Brachial plexus
Fill the blanks
Accessory nerve (CNXI)Trapezius
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