Structuralism
early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
Functionalism
early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
Behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Freudian Psychology (or Psychoanalysis)
(1) Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. (2) Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique used in treating psychological disorders. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the therapist's interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight
Psychodynamic
how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts
Gestalt Psychology
a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
Humanistic Psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth
Cognitive Approach
An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.
Evolutionary Approach
An approach to psychology centered on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors.
Biological Approach
an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system
Socio-cultural approach
Thoughts, feelings and behaviour that are appropriate or acceptable in a particular society or culture are viewed as normal and those that are inappropriate or unacceptable are considered abnormal.
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
Experimental psychology
studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world
industrial-organizational psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
personality psychology
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
Psychometrics
study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
Social psychology
study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
positive psychology
the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
frequency distribution
an arrangement of data that indicates how often a particular score or observation occurs
Normal Distribution, Normal curve
a symmetrical frequency of scores clustered around the mean
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
Mode
The value that occurs most frequently in a given data set.
mean
average
Median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
bi-modal
2 peaks
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
percentage
a portion of 100
Percentage Rank
the percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
Inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Replicate
to copy, reproduce, or repeat
Experiments
Test your hypothesis. You may need to do this step more than once to see if the results are the same each time.
correlational studies
a research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them or assign causation between them
Survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Naturalistic observations
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Case studies
studies that involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals
Longitudinal studies
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
Cross-sectional studies
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
Confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions
sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
Independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
Confounding variable
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results
experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Doble-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
Placebo
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
Illusory correlation
perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship
Scatter plot
A graph with points plotted to show a possible relationship between two sets of data.
Regression-toward-the-mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.
APA
American Psychological Association
Informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Coercion
the practice of persuading someone to do something by using force or threats
Anonymity
the condition of being unknown
Confidentiality
Respecting the privacy of both parties and keeping details secret
Protection from harm
the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm
Debriefing
the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Federal Regulations
Laws enacted by the federal government.
IRB (Local Institutional Review Board)
an administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects recruited to participate in research activities conducted under the auspices of the institution with which it is affiliated.
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment involving animals for ethics and methodology.
Mary Calkins
First female president of the APA
Charles Darwin
English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)
Dorothea Dix
Activist who helped improve conditions of mental patients
Sigmund Freud
Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.
G. Stanley Hall
american psychologist who established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States and founded the American Psychological Association
William James
founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment
Ivan Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
Jean Piaget
Known for his theory of cognitive development in children
Carl Rogers
Humanisic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality
B.F Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
Margaret Washburn
first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology
John B Watson
behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat
Wilhelm Wundt
german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879