Hypertonic
Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution
hypotonic
Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution
Isotonic
when the concentration of two solutions is the same
protonated
Describes an atom, molecule or ion to which a proton (an H+ ion) has been added.
deprotonated
Describes an atom, molecule or ion to which a proton (H+ ion) has been lost
polar, nonpolar
polar means oppositely charged, and non-polar means equally charged. Covalent bonds can be polar or non-polar.
Base/Acid
An acid is any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton (hydrogen ion) to another substance. A base is a molecule or ion able to accept a hydrogen ion from an acid.
Types of Bases/Acids
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Polar/Nonpolar hydro
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Cation
A positively charged ion
Anion
A negatively charged ion
covalent bond
A chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule
ionic bond
Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another
London dispersion forces
the intermolecular attraction resulting from the uneven distribution of electrons and the creation of temporary dipoles
dipole-dipole forces
attractions between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules
hydrophobic interactions
a type of weak chemical interaction caused when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude water
hydrogen bond
weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
Transformation
(genetics) modification of a cell or bacterium by the uptake and incorporation of exogenous DNA
Induction
process by which the presence of one tissue influences the development of others. Certain tissues, especially in very young embryos, apparently have the potential to direct the differentiation of adjacent cells.
Paracrine
Referring to a secreted molecule that acts on a neighboring cell.
Autocrine
Referring to a secreted molecule that acts on the cell that secreted it.
Juxtacrine
signals act through direct stimulation of the adjacent cells
Endocrine
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
L and D configuration
based on the last chiral carbon from the main group, L's have OH on the left and D have OH on the right
R configuration
-clockwise -right -put in parenthesis and separated from the rest of the name by a dash.
S configuration
-counterclockwise-left -put in parenthesis and separated from the rest of the name by a dash.
E configuration
the highest priority groups are on the opposite side of the double bond
Z configuration
the highest priority groups are on the same side of the double bond
Catabolism
Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.
Anabolism
Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.
Experimental Studies
studies in which the independent variables are directly manipulated and the effects on the dependent variable are examined
Cohort Studies
subset of longitudinal study in which the subjects are picked because they have a shared common characteristic or experience within a defined period
cross-sectional study
A study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time.
Case Study
study in which the subjects are hand picked for a detailed analysis
Quantitative data
tangible, hard data, objective info
Qualitative data
Subjective information
Comparative analysis
studies the difference between different populations
between subjects design
participants are randomly assigned to an experimental group in the study, such that a participant only participates in one groupwithin subjects design
repeated measures design
when a participant is exposed to every level of the independent variable
Correlational Study
study that attempts to determine if there is simply a relationship between two variables.
Retrospective study
obeservational study type where we look back at information in the past to try and find a trend between events in the past and current outcomes.
equilibrium constant expression
the ratio of the equilibrium concentrations or partial pressures of products to reactants, each term raised to a power equal to the coefficient of that substance in the balanced chemical equation for the reaction
Functional Groups
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Pressure/Temp graph
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SDS-PAGE
denatures the proteins and masks the native charge so that comparison of size is more accurate, but the functional protein cannot be recaptured from the gel
Native PAGE (polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis)
-analyzes proteins in native (folded) state- compares molecular size or charge of proteins known to be similar in size - allows complete protein to be recovered
gel electrophoresis
Procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel
gel filtration chromatography
a type of column chromatography that separates proteins based on their size using size-exclusion beads; also called size-exclusion chromatography
ion exchange chromatography
-stationary phase is made of either negatively or positively charged beads (attract & bind compounds that have opposite charge) -salt is added to elute proteins stuck to column
Hydrolysis
Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water
-lysis
separation; destruction; loosening
Decarboxylation
The complete loss of a carboxyl group as carbon dioxide
Carboxylation
addition of carboxylic acid groups, usually to serve as calcium-binding sites
Types of inhibition
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ping pong mechanism
an enzyme mechanism where a substrate binds to the enzyme and releases a product before the second substrate binds to the enzyme
ordered mechanism
an enzyme mechanism where the substrates have to bind to the enzyme in a specific order
random mechanism
an enzyme mechanism where the substrates can bind to the enzyme in any order
Diffraction
Occurs when an object causes a wave to change direction and bend around it
Refraction
The bending of a wave as it passes at an angle from one medium to another
keto-enol
aldehydes and ketones exist in both keto form (more common) and enol form (less common)Enol=more unstable
keto-enol tautomerization
shift from a carbonyl to an alkene with an alcohol. It is a reaction at equilibrium; these structures are not resonance structures
beta decay
radioactive decay in which an electron is emitted.
alpha decay
A nuclear reaction in which an atom emits an alpha particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons. This decreases the atomic number by 2 and the mass number by 4.
Gamma Decay
nuclear decay that involves the release of gamma rays
Decay
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Capacitor
An electrical device used to store electrical charge.
current
A flow of electric charge.
Theories of emotions
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operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
oxidation always occurs at
the anode of an electrochemical cell
reduction at the
cathode of an electrochemical cell
Enzyme Classes
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Oxidoreductase
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Transferases
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Hydrolase
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solubility constant
the concentration of the solute is incorporated into the K constant to give Ksp; multiplies ions? smaller=lower solubility
Lyase
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Isomerase
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Ligase
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electron geometry vs molecular geometry
Electron geometry- the geometrical arrangement of the electron groups (+lone pairs)Molecular geometry- the geometrical arrangement of the atoms (-lone pairs)
electron geometry
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If the disease or condition skips generations, it must be recessive. In other words, if two healthy parents have a child with the condition, it cannot possibly be a dominant trait.
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If more males than females have the disease or condition, it is more likely to be X-linked recessive. This isn't a guarantee; due to simple chance, more males than females could have a condition even if it were autosomal (located on a non-sex chromosome). However, remember that females have two X chromosomes, so they will not display the disease phenotype if they have only one recessive disease allele.
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If a disease is X-linked recessive, fathers will never pass it down to their sons. Fathers give sons their Y chromosomes, not X! For this reason, affected males must always receive their disease allele from their mothers, who could be either carriers or fully affected themselves.
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If only males have the condition, it's probably Y-linked, though these conditions are very rare. Only males carry Y chromosomes!
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If all children of affected mothers have the condition, but no children of affected fathers and healthy mothers do, it's probably mitochondrial. Mitochondria have their own genetic material, which is passed down through the maternal line. A number of diseases are inherited in this fashion.
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Helicase
An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks.
Topiosomerase
corrects "overwinding" ahead of replication forks by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands
RNA Primase
An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.
DNA polymerase
Enzyme involved in DNA replication that joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule
DNA ligase
A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.
ETC complexes
Complex I - NADH dehydrogenase.Complex II - Succinate dehydrogenase.Complex III - Cytochrome c oxoreductaseComplex IV - Cytochrome c oxidase.
simple diffusion
movement of a solute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
active diffusion
movement from LOW to High areas of concentration. Requires enegry
primary active transport
Active transport in which ATP is hydrolyzed, yielding the energy required to transport an ion or molecule against its concentration gradient.
secondary active transport
Form of active transport which does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport.
tumor suppressor genes
A gene whose protein product inhibits cell division, thereby preventing the uncontrolled cell growth that contributes to cancer.
Aliphatic
Containing carbon atoms joined together in straight or branched chains
aromatic compound
an organic compound that contains the benzene ring structure and may have a pleasant or unpleasant odor and flavor
PH and PKA
At a pH below the pKa for each functional group on the amino acid, the functional group is protonated. At a pH above the pKa for the functional group it is deprotonated. If the pH equals the pKa, the functional group is 50% protonated and 50% deprotonated.