Group processes
Groups can be different from the sum of their parts. People are often at their best---and their worst--in groups. It is through groups that individuals form communities, pool resources, and share successes. But it is also through groups that stereotypes t
What is a Group
1. is direct interactions with each other over a period of time
2. Joint relationship in a social category based on sex, race, or other attributions
3. Shared fate, identity, or set of goals
Groups vary in the extent to which they are seen as distinct/dif
Why people join a group?
People join a group for a variety of reasons, including
---1. to perform tasks that can't be accomplished alone and
----2. to enhance self-esteem and social identity
---3. Human live require that we work in groups through collectivism action
---4. Affilia
Once an individual joins a group
Once an individual has joined a group, a process of adjustment takes place. The individual assimilates into the group, making whatever changes are necessary to fit in. The group may accommodate to the newcomer, making whatever changes are necessary to inc
Tuckman's Stages of Group Development
1. Forming=members try to orient themselves to the group. They often act in polite, exploratory ways with each other
2. Storming= members try to influence the group so that it best fits their own needs. They become more assertive about the group's directi
Role
Set of tasks or expected behavior that people are responsible to do in group.1. Establishing clear roles can help a group; but when members' roles are assigned poorly, are ambiguous, come in conflict with other roles, or undergo change, stress, and poor p
Cohesion and Performance: Is there a relationship and which one comes first?
Mullen and Copper (1994) meta-analysis of 49 studies (work groups, military and sports teams).
Results:
Found that performance affects cohesiveness than that cohesiveness affects performance. The positive relationship between cohesiveness and performance
Group Cohesiveness
forces exerted on a group that push its members close together.
Members of cohesive groups
1. tend to feel commitment to the group task, like the other group members, feel group pride, and engage in many--and often intense--interactions in the group
When
Cultures and cohesiveness
1. Behaviors affect group cohesiveness can vary significantly across cultures.
2. When people working in a group, people from collectivistic cultures may distinguish more between working with friends and strangers than people from individualistic cultures
Norms
Rules of conduct for members. It can be formal or informal.
Informal norms are more subtle.
EX: what do I wear? How hard I push for what I want?
groups often develop norms that group members are expected to conform to. Group members who go against the nor
Social Facilitation: When others arouse us
1. In an early experiment, Tripllet found that children performed faster when they worked side by side rather than alone
2. Social facilitation refers to two effects that occur when individuals contributions are identifiable. The presence of others enhanc
Norman Triplett Article" The Dynamogenic Factors in Pace making and completion
studied the official bicycle records from the racing board of the League of American Wheelmen for the 1897 season. He noticed that cyclists who competed against others performed better than those who cycled alone against the clock.
Hypothesis: The presenc
What theories support that the presence of others increases performance?
1. Suction Theory - vacuum left behind
(the flow of a fluid into a partial vacuum, or region of low pressure)
2. The Shelter Theory:
3. Encouragement Theory
4. The Brain Worry Theory - leading is difficult
5. Theory of Hypnotic Suggestion - "the revolving
Social facilitation theory
A process whereby the presence of others enhances performance on easy tasks but impairs performance on difficult tasks.
Wendi Gardner and Megan found that participants in a study performed better on simple tasks and than worse on complex tasks in the pres
Zajonc's Mere Presence Theory
1. The presence of others or remembers of the same species
2. Increase arousal
3. Strengthen your dominant response
4. essay task: correct response enhance performance
----Hard task: incorrect response inhibits performance.
Study: Pool Players and Zajonc's Theory
As you gain more experience from a difficult task, the task changes from being difficult to being easy.
Pool players. Experts Vs. Novices
--Overall there is a main effect of expertise (Experts generally do better than novices)
Is there is an Interaction b
Study slide 22
Hitting the ball in baseball is a difficult task because most players fail.
This study looked at the best players when they were about to hit home runs and the number of events it took them before the 5 home runs before the mile started and the 5 home run
What theories explain social facilitation
3 perspective:
1. Mere presence theory= the mere presence of others is sufficient to produce social facilitation effects
2. Evaluation apprehension theory= the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others are seen pot
Evaluation Apprehension Theory study
Study about joking on a path. The path is broken into two different parts. Some of the are running while not being watched.
Others are watched by a confederate who seemed to evaluate them.
Result: The participant ran faster when they encountered the confe
Social Loafing: When Others Relax Us
Social loafing= individual output declines on a pooled task. When people work together, they are less likely to exert effort.
Max Ringelmann: Performed his study before Truckman but published it later.
Study: French researcher Max Ringelmann (1861-1931) h
Social loafing
Is Individual output declines on pooled tasks.
-1. Tasks in which the specific performance of any one individual cannot be determined.
2. Reduction in individual output on easy tasks in which contributions are pooled.
EX:--Study: When many produce less: I
Why does social loafing occur?
1. Coordination loss: Being focused and do your best.
2. Motivation loss: you do not do your best.
"free riding"
--We think that we should not exercise as much effort as others.
EX: You think to make a lot of effort on a group task because you think you a
Alan Ingham and his colleagues
How can you distinguish lack of effort from poor coordination in a task like this?
---Alan used a rope-pulling machine and blindfolding participants. In one condition participants were led to think that they were pulling with a bunch of other participants
When is social loafing less likely to occur?
1. People believe that their own performance can be identified and thus evaluated--by themselves or others.
2. The task is important or meaningful to those performing it.
3. People believe that their own efforts are necessary for a successful outcome.
4.
3 factors that reduce social loafing in college students:
1. Limiting the scope of the project that are large and complex should be broken into smaller components.
2. Keeping the groups small
3. Using peer evaluations--the number of times peers evaluated each other's work increased, the incidence of social loafi
Collective effort model
When will people avoid social loafing and might even be engaged in Social compensation ?
1. Outcome(s) are personally valued
2. Think their individual effort as important, relevant and meaningful
When will people avoid social loafing and might even be eng
Thought experiment:
If you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected, what would you do?
(slide 39)
Deindividuation
Th loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior
1. DeIndividualism diminishes a person's sense of individuality and reduces constraints against deviant behavior
2.Two type of environmental cues
Deindividuation cont...
Basic idea: being in a group, crowd undermines constraints of social norms; people ignore their own individuality
Anonymity increases deindividuation
EX: People shocked others harder if wearing a hood
Making one more self-aware & accountable can reduce an
Culture and Social loafing
1. Groups collectivistic discourage social loafing
-------- likely to socially loaf if they are working in a group that has established a norm of low productivity and effort.
Gender= women tend to be relatively more interdependent and connected to others
social identity model of deindividuation effect (DSIDE)
A model of group behavior that explains deindividuation effects as the result of a shift from personal identity to social identity
Whther deindiviuation affects people for better or for worse seems to reflect the characteristics and norms of the group imm
Process Loss and Types of group Tasks
1. Because of process loss, a group may perform worse than it would if every individual performed up to his or her potential.
2. Group Performance is influenced by the type of task:
---additive task= The group product is the sum of all the members' contri
How Do Groups Perform?
Group Productivity = Group Potential - Process Loss:
Brainstorming
A technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas by encouraging group members to speak freely without criticizing their own or other's contributions.
Contrary to illusions about the effectiveness of interactive brainstorming, groups
Why do groups do so poorly vs. nominal groups in brainstorming tasks?
Social loafing
Evaluation apprehension
Hearing other group members is distracting
Performance matching
Solutions?
Why brainstorming is ineffective?
--social loafing contributes to process loss in brainstorming
---People who participated in interactive bra
Biased Pooling of Information
On some tasks, sharing information is crucial for good decisions.
Often, people have some information that is shared, and some unique information
a group may fail to consider important information that is not common knowledge to the group.
"Common Knowled
Groupthink
1. Groupthink refers to an excessive tendency to seek concurrence ( think the same way) among group members
2. The symptoms of groupthink produce defective decision making, which can lead to a bad decision
3. Research to test the theory of grooupthink has
Charting the course of groupthink
--Irving janis believed that groupthink is a social disease with symptoms that increase in chance of making bad decisions.
See book page 315
How do Groups Think?
Conflicting findings about the types of decisions groups make:
Some found that there is a tendency for group decisions to be riskier than individuals' decisions ("risky shift").
Others found that group decisions tended to be more cautious.
Janis Believed
Group Polarization
The exaggeration of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members through group discussion
1. When individuals who have similar though not identical opinions participate in a group discussion, their opinion become more extreme
2. Explanations for gr
What causes group polarization?
Persuasive arguments theory, the greater the number and persuasiveness of the arguments to which group members are exposed, the more extreme their attitudes become. If most group members favor a cautions decision, for example, most of the arguments discus
Does Group Interaction ever Distort Important Decisions?: Groupthink
Mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
Kennedy and Cuban Crisis
Watergate Cover-up
Chernobyl Reactor Accident
Groupthink cont.
Excessive tendency to seek concurrence among group members.
Emerges when the need for agreement takes priority over the motivation to obtain accurate information and make appropriate decisions.
--Some researchers believe that when multiple antecendents of
Preventing group think
1. Avoid isolation, groups should consult widely with outsiders
2.To reduce group pressures to conform, leaders should explicitly encourage criticism and not take a strong stand early in the group discussion
3. To establish a strong norm of critical revie
escalation effects
The condition in which commitments to a failing course of action are increased to justify investments already made.
2. Groups are susceptible to an escalation effect, which occurs when commitment to a failing course of action is increased to justify inves
Group Performance: Are More Heads Better than One?
Additive Tasks: Groups usually outperform single individuals (despite social loafing).
Conjunctive Tasks: "weakest link" - Group performance tends to be worse than the performance of a single, average individual.
Disjunctive Tasks: "best performer" - Proc
Do groups make better decisions than individuals?
Many intuitive reasons to think so:
Law of large numbers
Collective knowledge of group > knowledge of any group member
Creative Brainstorming
Communicating Information and Ultilizing expertise
1. Biased sampling refers to the tendency for groups to pay more attention to information that is already known by all or most group members than to important information that is known by only one or a few group members. The tendency to spend more time di
Conditioned in which Biased Sampling is less likely to occur
1. Leaders who encourage a lot of group participation are more likely to elicit unshared (as well as shared) information during group discussions than are leaders who are more directive. As groups gain more experience, they become better at sharing infrom
Transactive memory
Helps group remember more info. more effectively than individuals ( or alone)
- Process loss occur
-Social loafing occur
--when groups members don't do their share of the work while expecting others to pick up the slack. The problem is that groups may not
Diversity: is it Productive? (Con't
Slide 57
Strategies for Improvement
1. Group norms that foster critical thinking can prevent biased sampling
2. Setting specific ambitious goals can improve group performance
3. Training groups in better group dynamics, such as how best to develop transactive memory, can be effective
4. Int
Mixed Motives and social Dilemmas
1. In mixed-motive situations, such as prisoner's dilemma, there are incentives to compete as well as incentives to cooperate
2. In social dilemma, personal benefit conflict with the overall good
3. Resource dilemmas involve sharing limited resources. In
Social Dilemma
social dilemma= A situation in which a self-interesteed choice by everyone will create the worst outcome for everyone
When what is good for one is bad for all!
The struggle between cooperation and competition....
The prisoner's dilemma= A type of dilemma
Which strategy is best to get cooperation?
Tit-for-tat"
Features:
It is nice. Starts by cooperating
It is provocable. If others defect, it will defect
It is forgiving. Once others cooperate, it cooperates too.
It is simple. Subtle signals are often difficult to understand.
Alternative: win-stay,
Social Dilemmas and resource dilemmas
Social Dilemmas are mixed-motive situations:
-They pit the short-term interests of the individual against the long-term interest of the group (which includes the individual)
-the most beneficial short-term action for an individual will have harmful effect
Factors affecting cooperation in social dilemmas:
1. Size of group
2.Communication/ Trust
3.Friendship
4."Shadow of the future"
5.Being in good mood/ models
6.Culture orientation
Study: Culture and the prison Dilemma
(slide 66)
1. Some studies have suggested that collectivists are more likely to cooperat
Structural Changes
1. Alter the payoff structure
2. Hand public resources to private ownership
3. Establish an authority to control the resources
Slide 68
1. Conflicts can escalate for many reasons, including conflict spirals and escalation of commitment.
2. The premature u
Strategies for improvement
Group norms that foster critical thinking can prevent biased sampling.
2. Setting specific ambitious goals can improve group performance.
3. Training groups in better group dynamics such as how best to develop transactive memory, can be effective.
4. inte
Group Support Systems
Specialized interactive computer programs that are used to guide group meeting collaborative work, and decision-making processes.
Groups with critical-thinking norm were much more likely to discuss unshared information.
Groups, like individuals tend to pe
virtual teams
There is a growing trend in the business world toward teams that are dispersed across space and work interactively via technology, but such teams may be especially vulnerable to some of the factors that cause process loss. Therefore, special attention nee
Diversity
research on the efforts of diversity on group performance is rather Mixed; both positive and negative effects have been found thus far
Chapter 9
...
Being with others: A fundamental Human Motive
...
The Thrill of Affiliation
This social motivation begins with the need for affiliation, a desire to establish social contact with others.
People differ in the strength of their afflict needs.
Stressful situations in particular motivate us to affiliate with others who face a similar
Need for affiliation
Need for Affiliation: The desire to establish social contact with others.
Social anxiety disorder: People feel social joy when they form new social attachment and react with anxiety and grief when these attachment are broken. We are deeply what others thi
Fear and Affiliation
Classic study - Schachter (1959)
Female participants were told that the experiment would involve receiving electric shocks
Either told they would be "quite painful", or "like a tickle"
Given choice to wait alone or in a room with others waiting for same s
Fear vs. Embarrassment (Sarnoff & Zimbardo, 1961)
led college students expect that they would be engaging in an embarrassing behavior--sucking on large bottle nipples and pacifiers--their desire to be with others fell off. It seemed puzzling that people in fearful misery love company while in embarrassin
What specific benefit do people get from being in the presence of others in times of stress?
1. gain cognitive clarity about the danger they are in.
Problem with shyness
1. People who are shy evaluate themselves negatively.
2. Expect to fail in their social encounters
3. They blame themselves when they are rejected or fail
4. Shyness prevents people from affiliating with others.
5. Being shy may lead to loneliness
6. Peop
Source of shyness:
Source of shyness:
1. Can be an inborn personality trait (genetics)
2. learned reaction to failed interactions with others.
Shyness is found in amydala
Loneliness
A feeling of deprivation about social relations.
Americans are more disconnected from their family, neighbors, and communities than in the past.
--is Most likely to occur during times of transition or disruption
going to college, breaking up with a lover,
Attraction
1. people are attracted to others with whom the relationship is
rewarding; rewards can be direct or indirect
2. Evolutionary psychology argue that human beings exhibit patterns of attraction and mate selection that favor the passing on
of their own genes.
Factors that affect initial attraction
1. Proximity
2. Familiarity
3. Physical Attractiveness
4. Similarity
5. Reciprocity
6. Arousal
7Evolutionary prspective
Proximity
Architecture of Friendship:
Classic study by Festinger, Schachter, & Back, 1950
The proximity effect:
Physical proximity and the likelihood of friendship
----results: We are attracted to people who are close to us, live where we are located, study where w
Familiarity: Being there
1. Proximity sets the stage for social interaction, which is why friendships are most likely to form between people who live near each other
2. Supporting the mere exposure effect studies show that the more often people see a stimulus, the more they come
The advantage of being physically Physical Attractive:
1. people respond more favorably to men and women who are physically attractive.
2. Some researchers believe that certain faces (averaged and symmetrical) are inherently attractive--across cultures and to infants as well as adults
3. People who are attrac
Trying to be as honest as you can, are you most attracted to people by their bodies or their brains?
Study: Women (60%) said, they use their brain to see a guy as attractive. Men said women body makes them attarcted
beauty is skin deep...we should not judge a look by it cover.
Problem with being attractive
1. Attractive people do not happy and do not have higher in self-esteem
2. people, especially women, feel pressured to keep up their
appearance and are often dissatisfied with how they look.
3. Marriage is not likely to be successful
4. Intelligence is no
What is beautiful?
There is no gold standard for beauty. However, some researchers believe that certain faces are inherently more attractive than other.
1. People have an image of what is beautiful ( attractive body: men are attracted to hourglass figure in women of average
Is beauty in the eye of the beholder? (yes and No)
Not always. Sometimes yes and some times No.
WHY?
NO,1. Raters agree about who is and is not attractive, both within and across ethnicity and culture
Perhaps there are some universal standards by which attractiveness is judged.
NO. 4. Babies are attracted
Averaging effect/
Why are average faces seen as more attractive?
Averaging face
2 perspectives:
1.Evolutionary view- averageness/symmetry signals health, fitness & fertility.
2. Cognitive psych view- prototype theory
Prototypes are perceived as familiar and as the "best" example of the category.
Prototypes are often th
What facial features are universally considered beautiful?
In Men:
Large eyes
Prominent cheekbones
Large chin
Big smile ( men are attracted to color red because it boost their sex of attraction--red-sex link
In Women:
Large eyes
Prominent cheekbones
Narrow cheeks
High eyebrows
Big smile
Is Beauty an Objective Quality?
Yes. Because Infants discriminate between faces that is considered attractive and unattractive. Babies spend more time looking at attractive.
people/ things than unattractive one.
Why are we blinded by beauty?
Why is Beauty so Important to us?
1. one possible explanation is that it is inherently rewarding to be in the company of people who are aesthetically appealing--that we derive pleasure from beautiful men and women the same way that we enjoy a breathtaking landscape or a magnificent work o
The benefits and costs of beauty
benefits of beauty:
1. attractive people are more popular
2. attracts more mate
3. Are more sexually experienced
4. more socially skilled
Disadvantage/ Costs:
1. highly attractive people can't always tell if the attention and praise they receive from othe
Cultural Differences
People from different cultures enhance their beauty in very different ways.
What is found attractive in one part of the world is often seen as repulsive in another part of the world.
Ideal body shapes also vary across cultures, as well as among racial gro
Body Type
Appears to be more cross-culturally variable than facial attractiveness
Study: Body Preference and Reliability of Food Supply Across Cultures:
---in African culture when women are heavy, they are considered attractive. The female beauty depends on food su
Ratemyprofessor.com: The Search for the elusive
--If we like someone we are more likely to see that they are attractive.
--The study showed that those who got the red pepper are dimmed to be better teachers.
Features that are not in physical nature that influence attractiveness:
1. Color red is one exa
How does it feel to see an attractive person?
People feel more attractive to someone with the opposite sex than same sex.
Study: Romantic Red: Red enhances men's attractiveness to women
Participants were asked how attractive was the target. When the background was red, male found female more attractive than the white target.
Why is Beauty so Important to us?
What-is-beautiful-is-good-stereotype: We automatically associate beautiful people with goodness. Movies makes us associate what is beautiful to good.
What-is-beautiful-is-good-stereotype:
the belief that physically attractive individuals also possess desi
When being Attractive puts one in Disadvantage
One possible problem Is that highly attractive people can't always tell if the attention and praise they receive from others is due to their talent or just their good looks.
Study: male and female participants who saw themselves as attractive or unattract
First Encounters: getting Acquainted
Similarity
1. People tends to associate with, befriend, and marry others whose demographic, backgrounds, attitudes, and interests are similar to their own
2. People first avoid others who are dissimilar and then are drawn to those in the remaining group who are most
Similarity
Matching Hypothesis: People are attracted to others who are similar in physical attractiveness.
People tend to become involved romantically with others who are equivalent.
But don't opposites attract? NO
No support for "complementarity" hypothesis.
4 type
complementarity hypothesis
holds that people seek others whose needs oppose their own that people who need to dominate, for example, are naturally drawn to those who are submissive. There is no support for this. Most human being are attracted to romantic partner of opposite sex who
Two stage model of attractiveness process
Holds that first we avoid dissimilar others, then we approach similar others
page 354
Matching Hypothesis
Matching Physical Attractiveness in Relationships
----Judges viewed photos of man and women. Judges told they would likely recover from other photos.
EX: balanced triangle:
--You like the enemy of our enemy and are likely to like the friend of our friend.
Matching Hypothesis
Study (Murstein, 1972)
Subjects rated photos of men & women on attractiveness
Photos were of engaged couples
Greater similarity in attractiveness ratings of couples than of random pairs
Study (Zajonc, Adelman, Murphy, & Niedenthal, 1987)
Judges viewed pho
Reciprocity
Between two people, a state if balance exists when a relationship is characterized by
Reciprocity: A mutual exchange between what we give and receive (for example, liking those who like us).
---Liking is mutual, which is why we tend to like others who indicate that they like us.
Works with 3 people as well!
EX:--Rebecca Curtis and Kim Mill
Does reciprocity mean that people like us the more we like them
Elliot Aronson and Darwyn Linder conducted on interesting study in which female college students met in pairs several times to discuss various topics. In each pair, one student was a research participant and her partner was a confederate. After each meeti
What about the Hard-to-get-effect?
he tendency to prefer people who are highly selective in their social choices over those who are more readily available.
"By keeping men off, you keep them on"
Preference for moderately selective (nonselective - poor taste/ low standards, too selective -
Arousal
Arousing is important for attraction.
--The physiological arousal is important in eliciting attraction.
--The best strategy you can make someone attracted to you is
1. Take them on a date on the bridge or scary movie so that they can be very close to you.
Arousal: Excitation Transfer Theory
Excitation Transfer Theory: One's physiological arousal can be labeled in many ways; sometimes arousal is misattributed to romantic interest.
We need two components:
1. we need the physiological arousal
2. The belief that the other person is the trigger f
Don't the girls get prettier at closing time: A country and Western application to psychology.
(Song)
You also see that arousal Is also about availability.
--when the availability of the opposite sex pattern is threaten or diminished. We dim those of opposite sex as more attractive.
Result: As they were getting closer to closing time, for opposite sex, we
The Risky Business of Matchmaking: Psychological Reactance
Participants are exposed to two profiles.
What we manipulate is the amount of pressure on them. In the first one, the matchmaker ( research assistant) leaves the room and let them make the decision.
In the second one, participants say I like A and he seem
Evolutionary perspective------ World Record for Most Offspring
Woman:
69, to the first wife of Feodor Vassilyev (1707-1782) of Shuya, Russia. Between 1725 and 1765, in a total of 27 confinements, she gave birth to 16 pairs of twins, seven sets of triplets, and four sets of quadruplets
Men:
Sharifian Emperor of Morocc
What Shall I Wear for the Party Tonight?
Women participants are approached and were asked if they had a party tonight, what will they wear.
--Women closest to their ovulation in their high fertility session showed a greater increase in the amount of skin revealed at high fertility compare to low
Sexuality
Although there is much variability within the sexes, men report being sexually more permissive and active than women.
Men and women see sex differently in everyday interactions.
Men view the world in more "sexualized" terms.
--If you give a men a complime
Gender differences in attitudes toward sexuality?
Oliver & Hyde (1993) Reviewed research on sexual attitudes and sexual behaviors (177 articles published between 1974 and 1990)
men more liberal in attitudes toward premarital sex
men more accepting of extramarital sex
men more likely to have had sex
men r
The "Coolidge" Effect
The term comes from an old joke, according to which President Calvin Coolidge and his wife allegedly visited a poultry farm. During the tour, Mrs. Coolidge inquired of the farmer how his farm managed to produce so many fertile eggs with such a small numbe
Successful Personal Aids: Gender difference study
Rajecki et al., 1991
When men and females use personal aid to find mates, they usually peruse a very different strategy.
In women heads: Women look at status over looks ( offer physical attractiveness and seek status, the offer weight and seek height and
What do men and women want? Analyzing Personals Ads
What men write:
Men are more likely to offer professional status and to seek attractiveness
men offer height, seek weight.
men seek younger women
What women write:
Women are more likely to offer physical attractiveness and to seek professional status
wome
Evolutionary Perspective on Mate Selection
Men and women by nature must differ in their optimal mating behaviors.
Women must be highly selective because they are biologically limited in the number of children they can bear and raise in a lifetime.
Men can father an unlimited number of children and
Sex Differences in Mate Preferences: Evolutionary Necessities?
yes.
Study: Evolutionary Mate Preferences: In Theory and In Practice
--Before they engaged in speed-dating, male and female participants stated their preferences for an ideal partner. Consistent with the evolutionary perspective, males were more likely to
Supporting Evidence for the Evolutionary Perspective
Universal tendency in desired age for potential mate.
Men tend to seek younger women (who are most likely to be fertile).
Women tend to desire older men (who are most likely to have financial resources).
Men and women become jealous for different reasons:
Universals in age preferences
Studies of personal ads in papers
Males consistently seek younger females, and women consistently seek older males
U.N. Data on average age of marriages
Nation Age of Groom Age of Bride
Brazil 25.9 22.6
Canada 25.2 23.1
Denmark 28.9 26.1
Italy 27.1 23.2
J
Evolutionary View of Love
Female reproductive:
1. Can produce fewer children over limited time span
2. FS seek Ms who have resources to protect them and their offspring
3. Fs evaluate Ms on basis of earning capacity, ambition, industry, status, and maturity
4. FS attached to male
Percent of husband whose wives made more money (including Nadav)
In 1970 only 4% of wives made more money than their husbands. This shift to
2007 to 22%.
Why is this a challenge to the evolutionary perspective?
---Because
1.
Mate Selection: Sociocultural Perspectives
Why is women making more money a challenge to the evolutionary perspective?
---Because
Women trade youth and beauty for money because they often lack direct access to economic power.
Men are fearful of sexual infidelity because it represents a threat to t
For a Lasting Marriage, Marry Someone Your Own Age
There are many predictors of the success of a marriage, among them the having of money, the having of children, and the length of time a couple spends dating before they tie the knot. Another big predictor, though, is age: The closer a couple is when it c
Mate Selection: The Evolutionary Desire
1. Evolutionary psychologists say that women seek men with financial security or traits predictive of future success in order to ensure the survival of their offspring.
2. In contrast, men seek women who are young and attractive (physical attributes that
Close Relationships, Love, and Sex
Intimate relationships include at least one of three components:
1. feelings of attachment, fulfillment of psychological needs, and interdependence
2. Stage theories propose that close relationships go through specific stages , but evidence for a fixed se
...
Love is the word used to label the sexual excitement of the young, the habituation of the middle aged, and the mutual dependence of the old." -John Ciardi
"It's about 90% sexual desire as yet not sated." - Ellen Berscheid
"Love is what happens to men and
Commonly listed features of love (Fehr, 1988
powerpoint 85
Intimate Relationship
Intimate relationships= going beyond initial interpersonal attraction.
What does intimate relationship fulfill?
1. Feelings of attachment, affection and love
2. The fulfillment of psychological needs
3. Interdependence between partners, each of whom has a
Murstein's Stimulus-value-role (SVR) Theory (1986)
(How do we advance from our first encounters to the intimate relationships that warm our lives? Do we proceed gradually over time, in stage, step by step, or by leaps and bounds?
According to Stimulus-value-role, relationships progress in order through a series of stages. ( You move from one phase to the next)
The 3 phase are:
1) Stimulus= attraction is sparked by external attributes such as physical appearance ( We are influenced
Theories of Romantic Relationships
Social Exchange Theory
Equity Theory
Attachment Theory
Evolutionary Explanations
Social exchange theory,
people seek to maximize gains and minimize costs in their relationships.
2. Higher rewards, lower costs, and an outcome that meets or exceeds a partner's comparison level (CL) predicts high levels of satisfaction
3. Lower expectations about alternatives (
Social Exchange Theory
People try to maximize benefits and minimize costs in a relationship.
1. All social relationships like economic bargains
2. Seek out and maintain relationships where rewards exceed costs
3. Also, will look at possible rewards and costs in alternative rela
Relational Building Blocks
The building blocks of social exchange are
1. rewards
2. costs
3. comparison level for alternatives
4. Investments
These factors are strongly associated with the satisfaction and commitment experience in their relationship
Equity Theory
People are most satisfied with a relationship when the ratio between the benefits and contributions is similar for both partners. At the root of it is about social justice. Is about the ratio of benefit and contributions between the two partners. As long
Which of the best describes your feelings?
1. I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting close to me.
2. I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I
Attachment Theory
1. In exchange relationships, people are oriented toward reward and immediate reciprocity, in communal relationships, partners are responsive to each others' needs.
2. People with secure attachment styles have more satisfying romantic relationships than d
Types of relationships: 3 types of Attachment Theory
Developmental perspective
Proposes that there are three types of interactions patterns for romantic relationships (derived from earlier work on parent-child interaction patterns):
1,Secure:
2. Insecure:
3.Avoidant:
The theory of attachment start with babi
3 Types of love
1. Passionate love-- Intense, physiological arousal, romantic, sexual, "to"
Study:Berscheid & Meyers (1996): love / in love / sexually attracted to
When participants were asked to create 3 list of people they love, people they are in love with, and people
According The triangular theory
There are 8 types of love produced by combinations of intimacy, passion and commitment.
2. Inherent in all clarifications of love are two types: Passionate and compassionate
3. Passionate love is an intense, emotional, often erotic state of positive absor
1. Percentage of Couples Reporting Sex Three Times a Week or More
Years Living Married Cohabitating Gay Lesbian
Together Couples Couple Couples Couples
2 or less 45 61 67 33
2-10 27 38 32 7
10 or more 18 -- 11 1
The longer people are married the less they have sex (slide 81)
Across different types of relationship, with
. Companionate love:
Affectionate, mutual trust, intimate, caring, not passionate, "warm"
Here there is research about self disclosure.
--Think about embarrassing moment and how you are likely to share them.
High levels of self-disclosure (the reciprocity principle) --When we
Excitation transfer
Excitation Transfer Theory: One's physiological arousal can be labeled in many ways; sometimes arousal is misattributed to romantic interest
Classic Study: "Shaky Bridge" study (Dutton & Aron, 1974)
Attractive female approached men in a park in British Co
Self-Disclosure
The revelations about the self that a person makes to others. Includes:
Self-disclosure is willingness to open up and share intimate facts and feelings. Self-disclosure is to compassionate love what arousal is to passionate love.
Who do we disclose too? B
Study: To whom people Lie?
Put this after self-disclosure
Lying is the flip side of self-disclosure.
For one week, people recorded every instance in which they tried to mislead someone. As you can see they lied most to strangers, and acquaintances. They lied less to family members and friends ( mostly family mem
Culture. Attraction, and relationship
1. Although Buss identified universal gender differences in mate preference, he also found some striking cultural differences, for example in differing preferences for chastity.
2. The universality of passionate love has led some researchers to explore th
Relationship Issues: The Male -Female Connections
Evolutionary psychologists say that women seek men with financial security or traits predictive of future success in order to ensure the survival of their offspring
2. In contrast, men seek women who are young and attractive (physical attributes that sign
Relationships Issues: The Male-Female Connection
1. People vary in how they define what it means to have sex.
-An average, men report being sexually more active than wommen and see opposite sex interactions in more sexualized terms.
2. An estimated or 4 percent of men and 2 % of women exclusively homose
Changes in the Ingredients of Love Over Time
Ingredients in compassionate love that takes different strand or partner in a relationship.
Commitment= increases over time ( go up with time)
Intimacy= increases and tend to decrease over time ( go up with time)
passionate = experience an increase early
divorce
The divorce rate is about 50% in U.S. This shows that many married couples in U.S are not passionate in a relationship
In 1998 2.2 million couples married and 1.1 million couples divorced.
In 2000 58 million couples were married, yet separated.
Approximat
Would you marry someone if you were not in love?
No
This goes against American value of individualism.
But this is not the case in other countries.
Pakistan and Italian said (50%) yes to marry someone they do not love
U.S and Japan said (8%) yes to marry someone they do not
love
The marital trajectory
One way to help people not get divorce:
new and arousing activities"
We see that there is a drop in marital quality during the first year of marriage and than again after the 7th year of marriage. As the drop is steeper it shows that the marriage is not g
Tension In Relationships
1. Faulty communication: negative affect reciprocity
2. Demand/ withdraw interaction pattern
3. High balance of positive to negative behaviors
4. Attributions
Marital Satisfaction
People who do not have children (5% satisfied) and those who retired are 56% satisfied. The rest are not.
Breaking Up
A relationship is likely to be long-lasting when the couple:
Has incorporated each other into one's self.
Has become interdependent and have invested much into the relationship.
But these factors also intensify stress and make coping more difficult after
Triangular Model of Love
ingredients:
1. passionate
2. Intimacy
4. Commitment
Time Spent Dating Before Proposal
--Dating longer before getting married decreases the likelihood to get divorced
2. Making more money decreases the likelihood to get divorce
. 3. Struggling financially increases the likelihood to get divorce
4. If you spend more money on your wedding, mo
Sexual orientation
A person's preference for members of the same sex (homosexuality), opposite sex (heterosexuality) or both sexes (bisexuality)
Chapter 11
...
what is aggression?
Behavior intended to harm another person
--Anger is an emotional response to perceived injury, hostility is an antagonistic attitude.
. Instrumental aggression is a means to obtain a desired outcome
--In emotional aggression, harm is inflicted for its own
Is this Aggression?
1. A girl scout tries to assist an elderly woman across the street and trips her by accident ( not aggressive bcz by accident)
2. A boy tries to inflict injury on a bigger bully, but is not successful; his efforts simply amuse the bigger boy.( aggressive)
Types of Aggression
1. Emotional Aggression= ( anger) : inflicting harm for it sake. Is reactive aggression. The emotion is impulsive, carried out by rage..
2. Instrumental aggression= inflict harm in order to obtain something of value. Harm is inflicted as a means to a desi
Cultural and Aggression
1. The rates of violence and the forms violence takes vary dramatically from one society to another
2.Some research suggests that individualistic cultures tend to have higher rates of aggression than collectivistic cultures
. The forms that aggression may
Culture and Aggression cont.
Study:
Much of violence in U.S causes aggression. The level of gun in the U.S is significantly higher than other Western countries.
--In U.S crime is done by individuals vs. in other countries crime is done by group of people
--Crime in U.S declined compa
Serious problem
Groping is a serious problem for Japanese women on the long commute home, where they are often forced into close proximity with men on packed subways and commuter trains.
The real figures are likely to be much higher, as the vast majority of cases go unre
Reasons why crime decline in US
Different types of crime are Unique to certain cultures.
in individualistic cultures crime is done by a single person.
--In culturalistic culture= crime is done by a group of people
Nonviolent cultures?
1. Most, but not all cultures, exhibit violence. There are a handful where violence is rare or nearly absent.
Study:
2. Bonta (1997) - examined 25 societies around the world where violence was almost completely absent. (no violence in these countries belo
Subgroups Within a USA
What is related to violence
1. Is age related to violence? Yes
-----Younger age is linked to higher rates of violent crime
2. Race:
Murders are mostly intraracial (same race) vs. inter-racial (different race)
---- 92% of black murder victims were killed by black offenders
83% of of
Gender and Aggression
1. Men are more violent than women in virtually every culture and time period that has been studied.
2. Males tend to be more overly, physically aggressive than females
3. Females are somewhat more indirectly or relationally aggressive than males
1. Men a
Gender comparisons in aggressive strategies (Bjorkvist et al, 1992)
Threatening the end of a relationship
Gossip
Backbiting
Trying to get others to dislike the target
Female= indirect aggression (gossip)
Male: Physical aggression and verbal
Socialization and Gender Differences
Males and females are rewarded and punished differently for aggression.
They also have different models
Social roles have a strong influence on gender differences in physical aggression.
Overt aggression tends to be more socially acceptable in stereotypic
Individual differences
1. There is some stability in aggression: Aggression in childhood predicts aggression in adulthood
2. People who tend to hold hostile cognitions, express anger, and exhibit irritability tend to behave more aggressively
. Some other personality traits are
Individual Differences: Attributional Approaches
Aggression in childhood does predict aggression in adolescence and adulthood, along with adult criminality, alcohol abuse, and other antisocial behaviors. Similarly, low aggression in childhood predicts low aggression in adulthood.
What type of personalit
What type of personalities tends to be associate with aggressiveness?
1. People who tend to hold hostile cognition, express anger, and exhibit irritability tend to behave more aggressively.
2. Provocation: situations that are perceived to be aversive or stressful
--Includes:
1. emotional susceptibility= the tendency to feel
Theoretical Perspectives
1. Evolutionary
2. Behavior Genetics
3. Social-cognitive
4. Social-learning
5. Attributional Approaches
6. Cultural approaches
Is aggression innate?
yes
1. evolutionary psychology accounts
2. Biological factors, including genes, hormones, neurotransmitters, and brain and executive functioning
Early Instinct Theory
Konrad Lorenz: Aggression is an innate, instinctual motivation. Complimentary to the survival.
Aggression secures an advantage in the struggle to survive.
1. Evolutionary Psychology
1. Views aggression as a universal. innate characteristic that has evolved from natural nonsexual selection pressures
2. Evolutionary accounts propose that gender differences in aggression can be traced to competition for status (and the most desirable ma
Evolutionary Psychology cont.
Similarities between Lorenz's instinct theory and evolutionary psychology.
Emphasis placed on genetic survival rather than survival of the individual.
In the book: The most dangerous Animal: Human Nature and the Origins of War: The author analysed that or
What can account for the gender differences in aggression?
Males:
1. are competitive with each other because females select high-status males for mating, and aggression is a means by which males traditionally have been bale to achieve and maintain status.
2. Because men cannot be sure that they are genetic parent
Evolutionary Psychology (cont.)
Why gender differences?
Aggression is a means for males to achieve and maintain status.
Sexual jealousy
Females place higher value on protecting their own lives in order to protect their offspring, so they are more likely to engage in indirect aggression.
Maternal aggression (wh
2. Behavior Genetic
Is aggressive personality type cause by genetic
__-Kids who are aggressive are likely to be aggressive in the future.
Two types of study:
1. In Twin studies, monozygotic twins (who are identical in their geneti makeup) are compared with dizygotic twins ( show share only part of their genetic makeup). M
Biological Factors: Testosterone
Testosterone - Strong positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggression.
-Does testosterone account for persistent sex differences in physical aggression? Yes ( male have higher levels than females)
There is a strong correlation between test
Biological Factors: Testosterone (cont)
Animals with diminished amounts of testosterone (castration) become docile, and if injected with testosterone aggression increases. Prenatal exposure to testosterone also increases aggression in female hyenas
Other Biological Factors
Testosterone changes the way you behave.
Brain:
--Frontal lobe abnormalities leads to aggressive and violent behavior
Prefrontal cortex: impairment can disrupt executive functioning ( ability to plan or inhibit actions ). executive functioning allow peopl
Is Aggression Learned?
1. Aggression is increased when it is rewarded
2. aggression is decreased by punishment only under specific conditions that are often not met in the real world
3. Physical punishment of children is associated with increases in their subsequent aggressive
Is Aggression Learned? Yes
It is innate but can be learned ( social learning theory)
2 types of learning:
Reinforcement (direct):
Aggression can be positively as well as negatively reinforced.
Positive reinforcement: Aggression produces desired outcomes.
Negative reinforcement: Aggression prevents or stops undesirable outcomes.
When punis
Possible Problems with Punishment
1. When perceived as unfair or arbitrary may provoke retaliation
2. Escalating cycle of violence
3. When delivered in an hostile manner may serve as a model
4. Corporal punishment?= Physical force (such as spanking, of controlling or correcting the child'
Social Learning Theory: Imitation (indirect learning)
Social Learning Theory: We learn from the examples of others, as well as from direct experience with rewards and punishments.
We learn from the exmaples of others as well from direct experience with rewards and punishments
Bandura et al.'s (1961) Bobo dol
Social Learning Theory
By watching aggressive models, people:
people
1. Learn specific aggressive behaviors.
2. Develop more positive attitudes and beliefs about aggression in general.
3. Construct aggressive "scripts."
--Nonaggressive models decrease aggressive behavior.
Study
Observing Models of Aggression
Sexually coercive men are promiscuous and hostile in their relationships with women. This coerciveness has increased due to television viewing of R- and X-rated movies.
Gender differences and Differences and Socialization "Boys Will Be Boys
1. Gender and cultural differences in human aggression may be due in part to differences in socialization practices--lessons taught, reinforcements and punishments, given models offered, and roles and norms emphasized.
Cultural and Socialization: Cultures of Honor
1. A culture of honor promotes status-protecting aggression among white males in the American South and West as well as among men in other parts of the world, such as in Brazil and Chile
Socialization and Cultural Differences
Socialization of aggression varies across cultures.
e.g., Cultural differences in machismo: contributes to the fact that rates of violence are higher among Latin American men.
Machismo present culture of honor:
Culture of Honor: Emphasis is placed on hono
Manliness as a Function of Wife Fidelity and Culture
study ( examined the culture of honor)
: female infidelity, Male Honor, culture: The condition:
In vandello and cohen (2003) participants from either Brazil or the Northern United sttaes read about a man whose wife was either faithful or unfaithful to him
Nature Verus nuture: false Dabates?
1. Human aggression clearly is affected by learning and experience
2. In aggression, as in all human behavior, biological and environmental influences interact
Evidence for culture of honor in the U.S. South
1. Homicide analyses
2. Attitude surveys
3 Field studies
4. Experiments
5.Laws & Social Policies
6. Place names
Socialization and Cultural Differences (Cont)
Cultures that favor violence breed violence. Scotch-Irish settlers in the South had more violent tendencies than their Quaker, Dutch counterparts in the Northeast of the US.
Study: The South is more likely to offend and commit violence
Study: In south hom
Frustration: Aggression as a Drive
1. The frustration aggression hypothesis proposes that frustration produces the motive to agress and that aggression is caused by frustration
2. But in fact, frustration produces many motives, and aggression is caused by many factors
3. According to the f
Frustration-Aggression Theory
4 main propositions to original theory (1939):
1. frustration will always elicit the drive to attack others
2. every act of aggression could be traced to some previous frustration
3. Not all acts of aggression are targeted against the source of the frustr
displcaement
Aggressing against a substitute target because aggressive acts against the source of the frustration are inhibited by fear or lack of access.
EX: The inclination to aggress is deflected from the real target to a substitute.
EX: After a bad day at work or
Catharsis
A reduction of the motive to aggress that is said to result from any imagined, observed, or actual act of aggression.
By displacing your anger on someone else, it helps reduce your aggressive tendencies.
Studies shows that displacing aggression in these s
The Catharsis Effect: No Sex before the Game!
1. Berti Vogts, the German football manager in 1994, banned his players from sex before games.
2. Linford Christie, the British sprinter, agreed with the notion, saying having sex the night before a race made his legs feel like lead.
3. In the film Rocky,
Person perception when aggressive or nonaggressive sports are primed
Method:
Participants watch either boxing or golf and then asked to rate an ambiguous target person on hostility and interest in aggressive activities.
box=aggressive
results: Participants who were primed with boxing games rated the target person both high
The Myth of the Catharsis Effect
Being with a woman all night never hurt no professional baseball player. It's staying up all night looking for a woman that does him in."
Problem is
Catharsis concept is not supported empirically!!!
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: Does the Research Support It?
Frustration is related to aggression.
But frustration does not always produce aggressive inclinations.
There are other causes of aggression besides frustration.
Frustration is associated to aggression but is not the cause
The negative feelings (social rej
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis Revised (Berkowitz, 1989)
Frustration one of many unpleasant experiences that can lead to aggression by creating negative, uncomfortable feelings.
It is negative feelings, not frustration itself, that can trigger aggression.
Study: Social Rejection, Pain and Control
Two confederate and were waiting.
There was a bowl. rather than having participants pass the bowl.
They manipulated if you are experienced control or diminished control.
Participant in diminished control put more hot sauce on the confederate. They did thi
Heat and Aggression
Heat increases arousal--leads to aggression
Aggression is more in Warner cities/global warming
warmer wheather is associated with increased aggression/crime
Murder and rape happen in warmer cities
Positive Affect seems to have an opposite effect!
Negative effect
1. A wide varety of noxious stimuli cancreate negative feelings and increase aggression
2. The negative affect due to provocation is a key factor behind much aggression
3. Hot temperatures are associated with increased aggression and violence.
4. Experien
The Link Between Heat and Violence
Worldwide weather records and crime statistics reveal that more violent crimes are committed during the summer than in the other seasons
Transfer of Arousal (Zillman, 1971)
Arousal Can Be Transferred From one Source to Another
Whether It Is Transferred Depends On The Subject's Attributions
--highly arousing stimuli increase retaliatory aggression
This is one of the explanation why when we experience heat, when become aggress
Thought: Automatic and deliberate
1. Situation cues associated with aggression, such as the presence of a gun, can automatically activate aggression-related thoughts and increase aggressive behavior
2. individuals differ in what associations they have with different kinds of weapons
3. De
Thoughts and Cognitions: Automatic and Deliberate
Handgun Availability and Death:
In U.S 41% of household have guns, 62.4 gun homicide, 72.3 gun suicide
Gun makers said: Guns do not kill people, people kill people
The U.S is highest in prevelant of guns used in violent crime
Automatic Cognition: Situational Cues
Weapons Effect: The tendency of weapons to increase the likelihood of aggression by their mere presence.
Priming for weapons makes aggressive thoughts more accessible (Anderson, Benjamin, & Bartholow, 1998)
Berkowitz (1968): "The finger pulls the trigger,
The Weapons Effect
The likelihood of aggression will increase by the mere presence of weapons
Study: Hypothesis: a weapon can act as situation cue that automatically triggers aggressive thoughts and feelings, thereby increasing the likelihood of aggression
Methods:
Confeder
Study: Guns, Testosterone, and Hot Sauce; evidence for the weapons effect
Male college students handled either a gun (fake) or a children's game for 15 minutes. results: Level of testosterone increased in the students who handled the gun than in students who handled the children;s game. Aggresive behavior increased in the stude
Neoassociationist Theory (Berkowitz) - cont
Cues Associated with Aggression Stimulate Aggression
Unpleasant experience ( pain, fustration etc) leads to negative feelings.
--Negative feelings to = objects or events w/ aggressive meaning--leads to angry thoughts association--leads to fearful thoughts
Hostile attribution bias
perceive hostile intent in others.
EX: Social maladjusted children who are chronically aggressive and have been rejected by their peers, have the tendency to see hostile intent in others that others to do see.
--People who are reject perceive negative int
Alcohol and Aggression
Alcohol, like high arousal, can impair the cognitive control of aggression.
Alcohol is included in majority of violent, suicide, and automobile fatalities
Alcohol increase aggressive behaviors even in thoughts who do not drink. Those who drink more aggres
A Model of Situational Influences on Emotional Aggression
Unpleasant experiences and situational cues can trigger negative effect, high arousal, and aggression-related thoughts. Due to indivudal differences, some people are more likely than others to experience these feelings and thoughts. Higher-order thinking
Violence in TV, Movies, Music Lyrics and Video games
1. There is a tremendous amount of violence depicted in the media, and much of it is targeted to children and adolescents.
2. A large number of studies, using a variety of different methods, have shown a significant positive relationship between exposure
The Extent of Media Violence
By the end of elementary school, a typical American child would have seen 8,000 murders and more than 100,000 other acts of violence.
The most violent TV programming is directed at children in the form of cartoons and other programs.
Children and teens ar
Television Violence
Correlational Evidence:
When TV is introduced into societies, violence goes up
22-year study showed that exposure to violence at age 8 predicted aggression at age 30 (boys only)
Longitudinal Designs
A non-experimental research design in which researchers track participants response over time.
The National Institute of Mental Health (1982):
The consensus among most of the research community is that violence on television does lead to aggressive behavior by children & children who watch the programs"
Especially true when an attractive person commits seemingly justified, realistic violence tha
Television Violence: Experimental evidence
Exposure to violent films increases aggressive behavior
Boyatzis et al (1995)- Kids watched Power Rangers
7 times more aggression than control
How Does Exposure to Media Violence Have Long-Term Effects?
1. Modeling - Aggression becomes seen as more legitimate for resolving conflicts.
2. Values and expectations are changed
- come to see the world as much more violent than it really is (Cultivation)
3. Desensitization [habituation] - We become desensitized
The effect of video game decrease on physiological desensitization to real-life violence
study:--The violent aggression in participants who were initially exposed to violent video games did decreased after they were exposed to the violent video games multiple times than those who were not exposed to violent video games.
Study: Heart rate at b
Desensitization Effects of Violent Media: Assist an injured stranger
80 seconds before helping violent participants were willing to help ad nonviolent participants were more likely to help 20 seconds before the injury.
Pornography
Pornography: Explicit sexual material
1. pornography, the evidence pointing to a causal link between viewing nonviolent pornography and aggressive behavior is weak, but the effect is stronger among individuals who are already predisposed to sexual aggress
Pornography and Sexual Violence
Correlational evidence-
As porn became more available in 1960s and 70s, rapes sharply increased - except in countries where porn was controlled.
In Hawaii, rapes rose ninefold between 1960-74, dropped w/ law change, then rose again when law was lifted.
Ra
Sexual aggression Among college students
1. Men are more likely than women to engage in sexuality coercive behavior
2. Alcohol consumption is involved in a majority of sexually aggressive incidents. Alcohol has several effects that increase the rick of sexual aggression.
3. The combination of po
Domestic violence: Partner and Child abuse
sexual jealousy and distrust fuel a great deal of violence between intimate partners.
2. National surveys reveal that women engage in as much or more aggressive behavior against a partner as men do, but women are more likely to be killed, seriously injure
Intimate Violence: Trust Betrayed
Gender
Alcohol (date-rape drugs)
Attitudes toward rape and women in general
Domestic Violence:
Wife-to-husband vs. husband-to-wife violence
The cycle of violence
Multiple causes, Multiple cures
1. Recognizing that aggression has multiple levels of causes, systematic therapy has been effective in reducing aggressive behaviors among violent adolescents.
2. Situational and sociocultural factors that can help reduce violence include
The avoidance of
What could Reducing Violence?
...
Chapter 12
Law: A Social Psychology Perspective
Embedded in a large criminal justice system, relatively few cases come to trial.
1. Yet the trial is the heart and soul of the system
Overview of the American Criminal Justice System
1. Crime committed (Not arrest)
2. Arrest ( charges dropped or taken to juvenile court)
3. formal accusations (case dismissed)
-Two things happen (4.Trial (not guilty verdict) or plea bargain)
5. Sentencing
6. two things happen:
1. You can be Fine, put pr
Jury selction
Once called for service, prospective jurors are questioned by the judge or lawyers in a process known as voir dire.
2. Those who exhibit a clear bias are excluded. Lawyers may also strike a limited number through the use of peremptory challenges
In U.S, i
How Juries are Picked/selected ?
Stage #1: A master list of eligible citizens from the community is compiled so that a representative sample can be obtained (list)
Stage #2: Certain number of people are randomly drawn (selected) from the list and summoned for duty.
( before people are su
Peremptory challenge
Lawyers can reject a certain limited number of prospective jurors evenif they seem fair and open-minded, and they do so without having to state reasons or win the judge's approval.
voir dire guide lawyers to accept some jurors and reject others.
Implicit
Trial Lawyers as Intuitive Psychologists cont.
To aid jury selection, lawyers rely on implicit personality theories and stereotypes.
Research does not support folk wisdom that juror's verdict can be predicted on basis of demographics. ( but general demographic factors do not reliably predict how juror
The intuitive approach to Jury selection sometimes leads to
discrimination on the basis of race and other characteristics. This approach is also not effective.
--Most lawyers cannot predict how jurors will vote
Scientific Jury Selection
Lawyers sometimes hire psychologists to conduct surveys that identify correlations between demographics and trial-relevant attitudes
2. scientific jury selection raises ethical issues concerning its effects on justice
Scientific jury selection: A method o
Lawyers' Theories about Jury Selection
A jury selection primer (1985):
"Women are born skeptics, generally as curious as the cat....And they are skeptical in direct proportion to the physical beauty of a female witness"
Others focus on group processes ("one-juror
Simplification process:
Sympat
Jury Selection
1 Peremptory
No reason needed
---Limited
----Remove the unsympathetic/ procedural justice & ...
Do you agree with the rule of law that requires acquittal in the event there is no reasonable doubt ?
Juries in Black and White: Does race matter
1 one the question of whether race influence a juror's decision making, research suggests that there is no simple answer
2. Whether or not jurors are biased by race may depend on the strength of he evidence, the extent to which attention is drawn to race,
Does Race Matter? Yes
Study: Six person mock juries watched the trial of an African american defendant (O.J Simpson) in group that were homogeneous (all white) or diverse (4 white and 3 black). In some cases, the issue of race was raised during the voir dire, in others it was