Scientific Rules
Only can test 'naturla run'Determine Subjective vs ObjectiveQualitative vs Quantitative
Metric System
Meter = Base unit of lengthGram = Base unit of massLiter = Base unit of volumeCelsius = Base unit of Temperature
Scientific Method
ObservationHypothesis (must be testable)Experiments (test hypothesis)Results & DataConclusion (accept or reject hypothesis)
Development of Pharmaceutical Drugs
Cellular / Molecular (in vitro = outside body)Animal Experiments (in vivo = inside body) (90% fail at this level)Clinical Trials - Phase I: Tested on healthy human volunteersClinical Trials - Phase II: Tested on target populationCinical Trials - Phase III: Tested on wide variety (age, ethnic groups, and levels of health) all over the countryCinical Trials - Phase IV: Tested for other possible uses
Homeostasis
Maintain stable, constant condition.Multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustment and regulation mechanisms make homeostasis possible.Body Temperature = 37CBlood pH = 7.3 - 7.4
Negative Feedback Loops
The output of the system acts to oppose the input of the system. If overall feed back is negative, system will be stable. Example = maintaining blood pressure
Positive Feedback loop
'A produces more of B which in turn produces more of A'Examples - Blood Clotting & Contractions during childbirth
Feed Forward Mechanism
Feed-forward control is exemplified by the normal anticipatory regulation of heartbeat in advance of actual physical exertion. Feed-forward control can be likened to learned anticipatory responses to known cues.
Most Common Elements in the Body
CarbonHydrogenNitrogenOxygenPhosporusSulfur
Elemental Make-Up
Proton: Located in Nucleus. Positive Charge (+). 1 AMU Neutron: Located in Nucleus. Neutral Charge. 1 AMU Electron: Located in Orbital. Negative Charge (-). 0 AMU Atomic Number: Number of Protons Atomic Mass: Number of protons and Neutrons
Octet Rule
Must fill all previous shells firstFirst orbital holds 2 ElectronsAll adjacent orbitals hold 8 Electrons
Covalent Bonding
Outer orbitals are shared.Organic Molecules bound in this manner.Non-polar: Equal sharing of Electrons (Example H2)Polar: Unequal sharing of Electrons (Example H2O)
Ionic Bonding
Transfer of Electrons (Example NaCl)Atoms seek to stabilize by completing their outer orbitals.Inorganic molecules typically bond in this manner.
Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrgoen atoms are slightly attracted to electronegative atomsExamples: Oxygen, NitrogenFound in Protein, Enzymes, and DNA
van der Waals Force
Slight attraction of non-poplar molecules.
Organic Molecules in Biology
Carbon based Covalent bonds allow for large compounds Combined with Condensation / Dehydration RXN Taken apart with Hydrolysis RXN
Carbohydrates / Saccharides (Sugars)
Suffix -oseFormula: CnH2nOnMonosaccharides are simple sugars (Glucose)Two monosaccharides can be joined covalently to form a disaccharide (Glucose + Glucose = Maltose + H2O)Numerous monosaccharides joined together are called polysaccharides (Glycogen)
Lipids (Fats)
HydrophobicInsoluble in polar solvents (water)Stored in the body as triglyceride.glycerol + 3 fatty acids = triglyceride + 3 H2OPalmitic Acid (saturated): single covalent bondsLinolenic Acid (unsaturated): at least one double bond