Encoding:
acquiring information and transforming it into memory
Retrieval:
transferring information from LTM to working memory
- most of our failures to memory is failure to retrieve
Maintenance rehearsal
Repetition of stimuli that maintains information but does not
transfer it to LTM
Elaborative rehearsal
Using meanings and connections to help transfers information to LTM
Levels of Processing Theory
Memory depends on how information is encodedDepth of
processing-Shallow processing
and -Deep processing
Shallow processing
little attention to meaningfocus on physical featurespoor memory
#NAME?
close attention to meaning better memory
Craik and Tulving experiment
presented subjects with three different kind of questions.
designed : physical features/ capital letters, rhyming , fill in
the blanks
then the were given a memory test to see if they recalled
They were able to recall the fill in the blank answers
paired - associate learning
list of words are paired like 15 pairs of nouns for 5 seconds and the
other group was to whisper the pair of words to themselves and the
third subjects were told to picture the images of the words. The ones
that took a image of the paired words got twice as many right
self -reference
relating a word to yourself
experiment:
the subjects were asked questions
the questions that they remembered the most were questions that
related to them
generation effect
memory for material is better whena a person generates the material
him-or herself rather than passively receiving it.
subject were told to read in a group then read to self
subjects retained more info when passively receiving the info to self
retrieval cue
a word in a particular category help the a person remember info
stored in memory.
EX: the organized tree minerals, smells at grandma house
Beware of Circular Reasoning
Which task causes deeper processing?
Using a word in a sentenceDeciding how useful an object might
be on a desert island
Depth of processing has not been defined independently of memory
performance Therefore, this is circular reasoning
Bransford & Johnson (1972)
Presented participants with difficult-to-comprehend
informationExperimental Group 1 first saw a picture that helped
explain the informationExperimental Group 2 saw the picture
after reading the passageControl Group did not see the
pictureGroup 1 outperformed the others.Having a mental
framework of comprehension aided memory encoding and retrieval
Which results in a stronger memory trace?
Re-reading the materialBeing tested on the
material-Roediger and Karpicke (2006) had participants read a
passage and then eitherReread the passage (rereading
group)-Take a recall test (testing group)Then tested
recall after a delay; testing group performed betterTesting Effect
Cued-recall: cue presented to aid recall
subjects were presented with 504 nouns
subjects generated nouns themselves and had other people generate it
Increased performance over free-recallRetrieval cues most
effective when created by the person who uses them
Encoding Specificity
We learn information together with its context
Baddeley�s (1975) �diving experiment�
Best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same location
subjects went in the water and the other half were on land
they retrieved more information from where they learned it from
Encoding Specificity
State-Dependent Learning
Learning is associated with a particular internal state Better
memory if person�s mood at encoding matches mood during retrieval
subjects were told to think merry with happy music or depressing
thoughts listening to melancholic music or depressing music then
fifteen minutes later they studied a list of words
came back in two days results indicated that they did better when
their mood at retrievel matched their mood during encoding
Distributed versus massed practice effect
Difficult to maintain close attention throughout a long study
sessionStudying after a break gives feedback about what you
already know
Transfer-appropriate processing:Morris et al. (1977)
phenomenon whereby the results of a memory task will be better if the
type of processing used during encoding is the same as the type during retrieval
consolidation- Muller and Pilzecker (1900)
Transforms new memories from fragile state to more permanent
stateSynaptic consolidation occurs at synapses, happens
rapidlySystems consolidation involves gradual reorganization of
circuits in brain
subjects were to learn syllabus
there was a delay group and a non delay group
the delay group that waited 6 minutes before they learned the second
list of syllables recall more information than the non-delay group.
Are Memories Ever �Permanent�?
Reactivation and reconsolidation evidence from research on
animalsOccurs under certain conditionsHuman memory is a
�work in progress�
Improving Learning and Memory
Elaborate - associate what you are learning to what you already know
Generate and test � The generation effectTake
breaksMemory is better for multiple short study sessions (the
spacing effect)Consolidation is enhanced if you sleep after
studying (in other words, no all lighters!)Avoid the �illusion
of learning�Familiarity does not mean comprehension