the study of the principles of mechanics and anatomy in
relation to human movement
Kinesiology
Sport psychology,
Exercise physiology,
Athletic training
Three areas that use kinesiology
Application of mechanical principles in the study of living organisms
Biomechanics
The mechanics of a part or function of a living body, such as
of the heart or of locomotion
.
Biomechanics
The study of the mechanics of a living body, especially of the
forces exerted by muscles and gravity on the skeletal structure.
Biomechanics
The study of forces and their effects on humans in exercise
and sport
Exercise and Sport Biomechanics
What is the ultimate goal of exercise and sport biomechanics?
is performance improvement
study of systems in constant motion, (including zero
motion)
Statics
Two sub-branches of biomechanics?
kinematics, kinetics, statics and dynamics
study of systems subject to acceleration
Dynamics
study of the appearance or description of motion
Kinematics
study of the actions of forces
Kinetics
pertaining to quality (without the use of numbers)
Qualitative
Involving numbers
Quantitative
Modifications in training can lead to what?
improvements in performance
The athlete may be limited by certain attributes such as
_____and _____ of certain muscle groups
strength and endurance
When can proper training can be designed and
implemented?
Once proper technique has been established
,
What design may have an effect on the performance of the athlete?
Give an example.
Equipment design
Evolution of the football helmet for performance and protection
What did the
Speedo LZR (2008 Olympics) do?
avoided the drag by cutting movement of the body�s fat
layers
Compressed bulging groins, breasts, legs and abdomens.
Internal panels streamline a swimmer's shape and built-in
stabilizers act like a corset to keep a swimmer in a more
efficient position during a race.
Equipment should be ____ to the task or else ______? Give an
example.
Specific
the benefits may be a detriment.
What is good for the court may not be good for the weight
room.
Biomechanics is useful in identifying what?
what forces may have caused an injury
How is biomechanics used in gaming?
bring in professional athletes and hook up all their joints to a
system to analyze them and recreate it in a game
Shriners hospital used for what?
Motion Analysis Laboratory
What system do they use in motion analysis? What two things does it
involve? What do they measure?
Vicon system
Infrared cameras
Reflective targets
Measure the motions of lower extremity joints and the trunk
Studies movement patterns and how they change across the
lifespan and varying disabilities.
Developmental biomechanics
To maximize the benefits of exercise and reduce the chances of injury.
Biomechanics of exercise
Study of the movement patterns of people who are injured or
who have a disability.
Rehabilitation mechanics
Studies work conditions and movement patterns to maximize work
performance, productivity, and reduce injury
Occupational Biomechanics
Increases in performance through the change of equipment.
Equipment design
Studies the physical measurements of the human body
What is Anthropometry?
What types of measurements does anthropometry look at? (give 7)
Weight, height, body comp., limb length, circumference
measurements, center of mass and segmental moment off inertia
What is anthropometry used for?
Used for: differences btw groups, race, age, sex, body type,
sport
What two industries use anthropometrics?
clothing: Basic anthropometrics used in designing
clothes-determining sizes Car companies: use this to
determine seat depth, length to steering wheel, etc.
Relationship btw body size and shape to sport performance
Sport Anthropometry
Sport anthropometry can be used to identify what?
talent..which sport would you be best in?
Before a kinetic analysis can occur in anthropometry, these
properties must either be _____OR ______
Measured or estimated
As you mature, what develops first and what lags behind? Why?
Head and trunk dominate and the limbs lag behind...helps raise center
of gravity and balance
Describe the growth of bones
Growth of the various bones occurs at different rates /
times
Maximum growth is first obtained by what and then what? This explains
what? When youngsters squat why is this an issue?
first by tibia then femur and then fibula....last is upper
extremities. Explains why youngsters have long legs because legs grow
quicker than top half
When they squat its an issue because you have to bend over more at
the waist to keep your center of gravity, also need a wider stance
Do human body proportions very from person to person? What must
coaches do?
Yes!...they must learn to modify an athletes technique based on
his/her proportions
researchers were influenced by what famous representation of ideal
body proportions?
Leonardo da Vinci�s : Vitruvian Man
In the late nineteenth century ____ body type was best for success in sport?
�the average�
�Morphological Evolution of Athletes Over the 20th Century: Causes
and Consequences� examined what? Give an example?
Examined the change in body types in Olympic Athletes
Elite female gymnasts have shrunk from 5�3� to 4�9� in the last 30 years
Describe �Big Bang of Bodytypes�?
Used to be a small circle but as time went on, the circle grew bigger
and each sport developed own body type
What sport has long legs and short torsos ? What is is good for?
Jumping Sports (VB, Basketball) �better for acceleration on take-off
What sport is best for having Long arms and short legs? what is it
good for?
Boxing..better for greater reach and lower center of gravity for stability
Best sport for Long arms but also Longer lower arm compared to total
arm length? Why?
Water polo...best for greater throwing whip
Best sport for smaller body types? why?
marathoners for thermoregulation
What is weird about Michael Phelps?
He is 6 feet 4 inches and wears the same size pants as the professors
5'9" husband..he has short legs....long torso for swimmming
Anthropometrics have been related to large differences in what
four things related to sports?
Draft pick
Years playing
Salaries
college scholarships
�Motion of bones relative to the planes of the body
Osteokinematics
Name the planes of the body and describe them?
�Sagittal-right down the middle, frontal (coronal)-cuts into front
half and back half, transverse (horizontal)-cuts body into top and bottom
What is the fundamental position and why is it used?
anatomical position and for consistency
What is a plane? the three planes are _____?
A plane is an imaginary surface on which motions occur
perpendicular
Vertically oriented surface from front to rear of the body
Sagittal plane
Divides the body into the right and left parts
Sagittal plane
divides the body into right and left halves-directly in center
of body
Primary sagittal plane
Vertically oriented surface from side to side of the body
Frontal Plane
Divides the body into front and rear parts
Anterior and Posterior halves
Frontal Plane
Horizontally oriented surface
...
Divides the body into top and bottom parts
Superior and Inferior portions
Transverse Plane
Diagonally oriented surface Combination of more than
one plane
Diagonal or Oblique Plane
Most movements in sports occur in what plane?
in the diagonal plane
A straight line around which the object rotates
Axes
Axis runs _______ to that plane_______ is described as
occurring in a plane
Motion occurs _____
perpendicular
rotation
about an axis
Line oriented from front to rear of the body, Rotations which
occur about this axis occur in a frontal or coronal plane
Anterior Posterior Axis or sagittal horizontal axis
Line oriented from side to side of the body
Observation of rotational arcs may be made from right or left
side of subject Rotations which occur about this axis occur
on a sagittal plane
Medial Lateral or Bilateral Axis or Frontal horizontal
Line oriented from top to bottom of the body or along the
length of a segment Observation of rotational arcs may be
made from top or bottom of subject Rotations which occur
about this axis occur on a transverse plane
Vertical or Polar Axis or Longitudinal
Sagittal plane...axis? description of axis? and common movements?
Bilateral
Runs medial/lateral
Flexion, extension
Frontal plane...axis? description of axis? and common movements?
Anterior-Posterior
Runs anterior/ posterior
Abduction, adduction
Transverse plane...axis? description of axis? and common movements?
Longitudinal
Runs superior/ inferior
Internal rotation, external rotation
The number of independent movements allowed at a joint
A joint can have up to ___ degrees of movement or _____
Degrees of Freedom
3
�angular freedom�
How many degrees of freedom?
Shoulder + hip= Wrist =Elbow =
3�can move through all three planes
2�movement in two diff planes
1�only movement in one plane
Lateral movement away from the midline of the trunk in the frontal
plane.ExampleRaising the arms or the legs to the side horizontally
Abduction
Movement medially toward the midline of the trunk in the frontal
plane�Adding a segment to the body�ExampleLowering
the arm to the side or the thigh back to the anatomical position
Adduction
Movement by a limb through a diagonal plane away from the midline of
the body
Diagonal Abduction
Movement by a limb through a diagonal plane toward and across the
midline of the bodyExampleHip joint while in the action of
kicking a football
Diagonal Adduction
Movement of the humerus in the Horizontal Plane away from the midline
of the body... it is along transverse plane
Horizontal Abduction
Movement of the humerus in the Horizontal Plane toward the midline of
the body
Transverse Adduction
Bending movement that results in a decrease of the angle in a joint
by bringing bones together.Usually in the Sagittal
PlaneExampleElbow joint when the hand is drawn to the shoulder
Flexion
Straightening movement that results in an increase of the angle in a
joint by moving bones apart.
Usually in the Sagittal PlaneExampleElbow joint when
the hand moves away from the shoulder
Extension
Angular change opposite to flexion and beyond anatomical position.
Hyperextension
Rotary movement around the longitudinal axis of a bone away from the
midline of the bodyOccurs in the Transverse PlaneAlso
referred to as Lateral Rotation
External Rotation
Rotary movement around the longitudinal axis of a bone toward the
midline of the bodyOccurs in the transverse planeAlso
referred to as medial rotation
Internal Rotation
Circular movement of a limb that delineates an arc or describes
a cone Crosses multiple planes
Circumduction
Combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and
adduction
Circumduction
Turning the sole of the foot outward or laterally in the
frontal plane Example Standing with the weight on
the inner edge of the foot
Eversion (pronation)
Turning the sole of the foot inward or medially in the frontal
planeExampleStanding with the weight on the outer edge of
the foot
Inversion (supination)
Flexion movement of the ankle that results in the top of the
foot moving toward the anterior tibia bone in the sagittal
plane
Dorsiflexion
Extension movement of the ankle that results in the foot and/or toes
moving away from the body in the sagittal plane
Plantar Flexion
Internally rotating the radius in the Transverse Plane so that
it lies diagonally across the ulna Results in the palm down
position of the forearm Palm up to palm down
Pronation
Externally rotating the radius in the Transverse Plane so that it
lies parallel to the ulnaResults in the palm up position of the
forearmPalm down to palm up�holding soup
Supination
Superior movement of the shoulder girdle in the Frontal
PlaneExampleShrugging the shoulders
Elevation
Inferior movement of the shoulder in the Frontal Plane
Return from elevation Example Returning to the
normal position from a shoulder shrug
Depression
Backward movement of the shoulder girdle toward the
spineAdduction of the scapula
Retraction...adduction
Forward movement of the shoulder girdle away from the
spineAbduction of the scapulaAway from
bodyProtraction/Retraction occur in the transverse plane
Protraction (abduction)
Rotary movement of the scapula in the Frontal Plane with the inferior
angle of the scapula moving medially and downwardOccurs
primarily in the return from Upward Rotation
Downward Rotation
Rotary movement of the scapula in the Frontal Plane with the
inferior angle of the scapula moving laterally and upward
Upward Rotation
Extension movement of the wrist in the Sagittal Plane
The dorsal or posterior side of the hand moves toward the
posterior side of the forearm
Dorsal Flexion (dorsiflexion))
Flexion movement of the wrist in the Sagittal PlaneThe palmar
or anterior side of the hand moves toward the anterior side of the forearm
Palmar Flexion
Abduction movement at the wrist in the frontal plane-associated
with sagittal axis The thumb side of the hand moves toward
the lateral forearm
Radial Flexion (Radial Deviation)
Adduction movement at the wrist in the Frontal Plane
The little finger side of the hand moves toward the medial
forearm
Ulnar Flexion (Ulnar Deviation)
These movements occur where?
�Flexion
�Extension
�Dorsiflexion
�Plantar flexion
Sag plane
These movements occur where?
�Abduction
�Adduction
�Radial Deviation
�Ulnar Deviation
�Elevation
�Depression
�Inversion
�Eversion
Frontal plane
These movements occur where? Rotation
Supination Pronation Horizontal ABD
Horizontal ADD
Trans plane
what movement occurs in all three planes?
Circumduction
Toward the head end or upper part of a structure of the
body.
Superior
Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure
or the body
Inferior
�Toward the front of the body
Anterior
�Toward the rear of the body
Posterior
Toward the midline of the body
Medial
Away from the midline of the body
Lateral
toward the surface of the body
Superficial
inside the body away from the surface
deep
Closer to the body�s center of mass
Proximal
�Farther from the body�s center of mass
Distal
Striated � Non-striated �
cardiac or skeletal muscle
smooth muscle
Skeletal muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Smooth Muscle
Controlled by the autonomic nervous system
�Located in the walls of blood vessels and throughout internal organs
involuntary
Smooth Muscle
Controlled by the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems
�Located only in the heart
Involuntary
Cardiac muscle
Controlled consciously by the somatic nervous system
Voluntary
Skeletal Muscle
�Skeletal muscle serves a variety of functions (name the 5)
Movement Posture Maintenance Heat
Production Protection Pressure Alteration
?Bones =
?Muscles =
lever structure
force
it has long been common to view muscles as mechanically _____
actuators
Independent
FASCIA is a term derived from LatinMeaning � ?
�band or bandage�
_______ is the dense, tough tissue which surrounds and covers all of
your muscles and bones.
Fascia or myofascia
Fascia Has a tensile strength of over ____ pounds.
2,000
Under a microscope, myofascia resembles a ?
spider web or fish net.
�can best be described as a complete body suit which runs from the
top of your head down to the bottom of your toes.
Myofascia
When muscle fibers are injured, they heal by forming _____ the fibers
and the fascia which surrounds it become short and tight.
Adhesions
In scaring and adhesion the ground substance of fascia is converted
from ___ state to ___ state.
gel to solid
Scarring or injury to this network of connective tissue can be a
major cause of ?
pain and limitation 0f motion.
Because the fascial system is interconnected what might happen?
this stress can be transmitted through the fascia to other parts of
the bodySymptoms may appear in areas of the body that seem
unrelated to the actual restricted area
Inelastic collagen matrix forms?
roadblocks
how many myofascial lines?
11
name 2 muscles in superficial front line?
rectus abdominis and tibialis anterior
2 muscles in superficial back line?
hamstrings and gastrocnemius
2 muscles in the lateral lines?
lateral abdominal and ITB
2 muscles in back functional line?
latts and gluteus maximus
2 muscles in front functional line?
adductor longus and lower pectoralis major
2 muscles in spiral line?
serratus anterior and spinae erectors
2 muscles in deep front arm line?
briachialis and biceps brachii
2 muscles in superficial front arm line?
pect major and lats
2 muscles in deep back arm line?
triceps and rotator cuff muscles
2 muscles in superficial back arm line?
traps and deltoid
Myofascial Release� ? what does it address?
foam rolling
localized tightness in the fascia
Surrounds entire muscle Tapers at ends & joins
intramuscular sheaths to form tendons
Epimysium
Surrounds a bundle of up to 150 fibers
Perimysium
a bundle of fibers
Fasciculus
Fine layer of connective tissue that wraps each muscle
fiber
Endomysium
An individual muscle cell is called a
muscle fiber
all three CT of the muscles merge at the ends and are continuous with what?
the tendons
Thin elastic membrane enclosing the fiber�s cellular
contents
Sarcolemma
The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is called ?
the sarcoplasm
Within the sarcoplasm, the ___________ allow transport of substances
throughout the muscle fiber
T tubules
what do the T tubules allow to transport? (4)
NeurotransmittersAction potentials NutrientsHormones
The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) stores and releases ?
calcium (Ca2+)
tell organization level of skeletal muscle? (5 levels)
muscle
fascicle
muscle fiber
myofibril
myofilaments
A single muscle fiber contains smaller functional units that lie
parallel to the fiber�s long axis
Miofibrils
how big are miofibrils?
Approximately 1?m (aka: microns) in diameter
____are joined end to end within a single myofibril Composed of:
sarcomere
actin and myosin
sarcomeres expand from where to where?
when muscles contract what shortens?
just myosin?
A band?
I band?
M line?
z disc to z disc
H band
H band
alittle actin but all myosin
all actin
down center of myosin in the middle
Sarcomeres are arranged in ___ and in ____
series and in parallel
Longer muscle fibers have more sarcomeres in ?
Longer muscles can also shorten at ? Also have larger what?
series
higher velocities
larger ROM
1.ability to be stretched or to increase in length
Extensibility
ability to return to normal resting length following a stretch
Elasticity
ability to create/generate tension
Contractility
.ability to respond to a stimulus
Irritability
Nervous sys consists of two major parts? each composed of what?
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)Brain & spinal cord2.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)Nerves that transmit information
to and from CNS
PNS broken down into what two divisions? describe them?
afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor)
Afferent: relay sensory information Efferent: transmit
information to peripheral tissue
efferent division broken down into what two systems? this further
breaks down into what?
what are the 2 types of efferent neurons?
autonomic and somatic NS
autonomic= sympathetic and parasymmpathetic
1. Somatic nerves2. Autonomic nerves
AKA: motor neuronsInnervate skeletal muscle
somatic nerve fibers
AKA visceral or involuntary nervesActivate cardiac & smooth
muscleActivate sweat & some endocrine glands
autonomic nerve fibers
Motor Neuron Structure consists of what 3 things?
DendritesCell bodyAxon
Neurons transmits electrochemical impulses from spinal cord to ___?
are neural branches that receive impulses and directs them toward
cell body
houses the control centerIn spinal cord
extends delivers impulses to muscleExtends from spinal cord
muscle
dendrites
cell body
axon
Skeletal muscle is innervated by ____ neurons that provide muscle movement
Nerves terminate on muscle fibers at the ?
One nerve can innervate many muscle fibers, however 1 muscle fiber
is only innervated by ?
?-motor
motor end plate
1 nerve
a single ?-motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates
Motor unit
Where motor neuron meets the muscle fiber
The Neuromuscular Junction
pocket formed around motor neuron by sarcolemma
Motor end plate
short gap of neuromuscular junction
Neuromuscular cleft
what is released from the motor neuron? what does this cause? Which
ultimately causes?
Ach...end plate potential...depolarization of muscle cell
A motor neuron, with signals from the brain or spinal cord, releases
_____ the neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction.
ACh crosses the junction and binds to ?
This initiates an ____, providing that sufficient Ach binds to its receptors.
Ap =?
The action potential travels along the sarcolemma and through the
____ to the ____ causing ?
acetylcholine (ACh)
receptors on the sarcolemma.
action potential (AP)= rapid, substantial depolarization of the membrane
T tubules 2 SR...the SR to release Ca2+.
when Ca is released fro the SR, what happens?
Ca++ binds to troponin and causes position change in tropomyosin,
exposing active sites on actin
Once a binding state is established between myosin and actin, the
myosin head ?
tilts and pulls the actin filament (power stroke).
The myosin head binds to ____ found on the myosin head and splits ATP
into ? which does what?
ATP and ATPase
ADP and Pi, releasing energy.
Contraction continues as long as ?
intracellular Ca2+ is elevated and ATP is available.
Muscle action ends when Ca2+ is ?
actively pumped out of the sarcoplasm back into the SR for storage.
inside the cell is what? outside? what happens during depolarization? repolarization?
inside =negative and outside=positive
sodium floods into cell making it more positive
potassium floods back out of cell to make it back to negative on
inside of cell
3 phases of cross bridge cycling?
Binding: Attachment
Bending: Powerstroke
Breaking: Detachment
The sliding filament model?
Formation of cross-bridges between actin and myosin filaments �Power stroke
1 power stroke only shorten muscle by?
1%
Sliding filament theory is a reduction in what?
Reduction in the distance between Z-lines of the sarcomere
Slow oxidative Slow twitch/fatigue resistant
Type I
Fast oxidative glycolyticFast twitch/fatigue resistant
Type IIa
Fast glycolyticFast twitch/fast fatigue
Type IIb
contraction speed with type 1 and type IIb?
fatigue rate
diameter
ATPase concentraction
mitochondrial concen
glycolytic enzyme concen
slow.....fast
slow......fast
small......large
low.....high
high....low
low.....high
Maximum shortening velocity of human muscle has been measured to
be:___ (fiber lengths per second) for Type II fibers___
(fiber lengths per second) for Type I fibers
6 fl/s
2 fl/s
The maximum velocity of shortening is three times greater for
___muscles compared to____muscles
fast
slow
states that the order of recruitment is directly related to motor
neuron size
which motor units get recruited first?
which muscle type gets recruited first? which last?
size principle
small before large
type 1 before type II...type IIa
describe graduation of force? you could also do what?
recruit more motor units for additional contractile force
inc firing rate
The number of muscle fibers innervated by one motor neuron
Innervation Ratio (IR)
The smaller the IR, the more precise the ?
give an example of a muscle that would fit under this?
recruitment of muscular force...occular muscles
Detects changes in electrical gradient
Electromyography
electroyography allows us to determine? (2)
Allows us to determine:Amount of active motor units�fast
twitch or slow twitch?
Force-Time Relationship broken into what 2 parts?
1st part:Due to the rise in muscle stimulation2nd part:
Involves the build up of tension (fusion of twitches)
Connective tissue that connect muscle to bone
tendon
When a muscle contracts, it pulls with ____ on each attachment
equal force
Because muscles attach to moveable limbs, the muscles and their
attached tendons move when ?
the muscles shorten or lengthen.
More proximal attachmentAttaches to the bone that moves less
origin
More distal attachmentAttaches to the bone that moves more
insertion
Refers to the direction of the resultant force produced at the attachment
line of pull
Muscles that have more than one origin or insertion do not have ?
one single line of pull
The force, speed, and power that can be harnessed from skeletal
muscles to power movement are ultimately limited by the mechanical
behavior of
myofibers
The shape and fiber arrangement play a role in the muscle�s ability
to ___ and the _____ through which it can effectively exert force onto
the bones to which it is attached
exert force
range
The angle between the tendon and the muscle fibers is called
pennation angle
fibers are roughly parallel to the longitudinal axis of the muscle;
Parallel fiber arrangement:
short fibers attach to one or more tendons within the muscle at an angle
Pennate fiber arrangement
___ angle can vary by muscle and between individuals for the same muscle
pennation
measured in the perpendicular plane of the long axis of the limb
cross sectional area
measured perpendicular to the orientation of the muscle fibers line
of action
physiological cross sectional area
what is a more true indicator of force generation CSA or PSCA?
PSCA
we lose force generation as muscles get?
shorter and shorter
Greater number of fibers in series
Parallel
Greater shortening velocities parallel or pennate?
parallel
greater ROM parallel or pennate?
parallel
Greater number of fibers in parallel
pennate
Reduced shortening velocity, parallel or pennate?
pennate
As muscles shorten, angle of pennation ____, ______ force throughout
a contraction
increases
decreasing
3 types of pennate fibers?
UnipennateBipennateMultipennate
Usually thin and broadOriginating from a broad, fibrous, sheet
like aponeurosesAllow them to spread their forces over a broad
areai.e. Rectus Abdominus, External Oblique
flat muscle fibers
Spindle shapedCentral belly that tapers to tendons on each
endCan focus their power onto small, bony targetsi.e.
Brachialis, Biceps Brachii
fusiform muscle fibers
More uniform in diameterEssentially all of their fibers
arranged in a long, parallel mannerCan focus their power onto
small, bony targetsi.e. Sartorius
Strap muscle fiber
Combined arrangement of flat and fusiform musclesOriginate on
broad aponeurosesConverge onto a tendoni.ePectoralis
Major, Trapezius
radiate muscle fiber
Technically, endless strap musclesSurround
openingsFunction to close them upon contractionI.e.
OrbicularisOris, OrbicularisOculi
Sphinter muscle fiber
Fibers run diagonally with respect to a central tendon running the
length of the muscle
pennate
is parallel or pennate Involved in movements that require great
strength over limited ROM?
pennate
Fibers run�all fibers run in same direction
diagonally off one side of the tendoni.e. Extensor DigitorumLongus
Unipennate
Fibers run (2 directions) diagonally off both sides of a central
tendoni.e. Rectus Femoris
bipennate
Several tendons with fibers running diagonally between them
Numerous directonsi.e. Deltoid
Multipennate