Biological classification is made by ___ instead of physical similarities
common descent
major factor used in the classification of organisms
DNA sequences
8 levels of taxonomy hierarchy
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
3 domains
archaea, eubacteria, eukarya
6 kingdoms
animalia, fungi, plantae, protista, eubacteria, and archaebcteria
how do you write the names of individual species, or the binomial nomenclature
Genus species.
Genus first and capitalized, species next and
lowercase. Both italicized.
stretches of DNA on a chromosome that provide information on characteristics
Genes
every gene exists in different forms called
alleles
some alleles can have a
mutation
mutations on the alleles can affect the way a gene
functions
mutations change the
dna sequence permanently
thru changes in ___ some species are able to adapt to their evironment
mutations and combinations of alleles
can mutations be passed down thru generations?
yes
2 major nucleic acids
DNA and RNA
stores and transmits hereditary information
nucleic acids
a nucleic acid is a chain of
nucleotides
nucleotides consist of
pentose, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base
pentose is
sugar
backbone of RNA and DNA and links bases together
phosphate group
encodes the genetic information in cells
nitrogenous base
5 types of nitrogenous bases
adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, uracil
thymine is unique to
dna
uracil is unique to
rna
adenine, cytosine, and guanine are found in
dna and rna
dna is usually seen as a
double helix
A always pairs with
G always pairs with
T
C
A and G have 2 rings, so they are called
purines
T and C have 1 rings, so they are called
pyrimidines
RNA exists in a ___ strand of nucleotides
single
Pentose of DNA
deosyribose
pentose of RNA
ribose
DNA is the ___ of the cell
genetic blueprint
Rna is the ___ in a cell
messenger
the messages in DNA must be transferred to the ___ to make ____
ribosomes
proteins
what is transcription
copying DNA into RNA to send to the ribosomes
proteins are made by
ribosomes
what is translation
the process of making the proteins from messenger RNA
has the most basic types of cells that can exist independently of
other cells
bacteria, specifically prokaryotic bacteria
outside, rigid layer of cell
cell wall
cytoplasm is a rich ____ fluid
protein
condensed DNA of a cell
nucleoid
nucleoids contain
genes and blueprints
small circular portions of DNA
plasmids
makes proteins for the cell from RNA messages
ribosomes
some prokaryotic cells use ___ for movement
flagella
which cells are bigger and more complex? eukaryotic or prokaryotic
eukaryotic
cells of a multicellular organism
eukaryotic
eukaryotic or prokaryotic cellsWhich doesnt have a cell wall
eukaryotic
what 6 organelles do eukaryotic cells have that prokayotic cells dont
ER, golgi apparatus, vescicle, mitochondria, nucleus, and nucleolus
tubular transport network in a eukaryotic cell
ER
causes the rough ER to be rough
ribosomes
responsible for numerous metabolic processes of a cell
smooth ER
moves proteins from one part of a eukaryotic cell to another, or
secreting proteins out
ER
packages and transports proteins in the eukaryotic cell
golgi apparatus
what does the golgi apparatus do
refines and sorts proteins and works with ER to move protein
small membrane-bound sacs in the cytoplasm
vescicles
transports proteins out of the cell
vesicles
3 types of vesicles
vacuoles, lysosomes, perosisomes
basic storage unit of eukaryotic cells
vacuole
contains digestive enzymes in eukaryotic cells to dispose of debris
and worn out parts
lysosomes
rids the body of toxic components in the eukaryotic cell
peroxisome
major site of oxygen use and energy production in eukaryotic cells
peroxisomes
what organ contains a lot of peroxisomes, and why?
Liver
toxic substance build up there
powerhouse of the cell
mitochondria
where ATP is produced
mitochondria
cellular fuel
ATP
folds inside organs and organelles
cristae
what is found inside cristae
enzymes
what do the enzymes of the cristae do
convert sugar into ATP
cellular tracks in eukaryotic cells that form the mitotic spindle
microtubles
when do microtubles in eukaryotic cells form the mitotic spindle
during mitosis
what is the mitotic spindle used for
organize and segregate chromosomes during cell division
microtubule-organizing centers in eukaryotic cells
centrosomes
helps form the mitotic spindle
microtubles and centrosomes
what organelle in a eukaryotic cells is enclosed in a double membrane
nucleus
control center of entire eukaryotic cell
nucleus
2 things nucleus does
stores genetic material and directs all cellular activity
small body in the nucleus
nucleolus
what does the nucleolus do
makes ribsosomes
multiple flagella? then they are called
cilia
eukaryotic or prokaryotic cellsWhich has bigger flagella and cilia?
eukaryotic
plants are similar to ___ cells
eukaryotic
3 differences in plant cells than eukaryotic cells
chloroplasts, larger vacuoles, and a cell wall
inside of chloroplasts
chlorophyll
what does chlorophyll do
captures sunlight for the production of glucose
chloroplasts are structurally similar to
mitochondria
contains water in plant cells
vacuoles
how does a plant cell maintain proper cell pressure
vacuoles filled with water
in eukaryotic cells, the dna is in the ____, in prokaryotic cells,
the dna is found in the ____
nucleus
nucleoid
contains sections called genes
chromosomes
information that specifies the production of proteins
genes
genes use ___ to send messages
codes
what are genes made up of
double-stranded molecules of DNA
what are the double-stranded molecules of DNA inside of genes made up of
4 nitrogenous bases
the 4 chemical groups that always match up in pairs
nitrogenous bases
chromosomes consist of subunits of ____, and genes consist of of ____
genes
dna
what is required for translating the complementary code on dna into a protein
RNA
where is the DNA code copied into rna, and then where is it transported
copied in nucleus, transported to the ribosomes
at the ribosome, the rna code is translated into an
amino-acid chain
a chain of what results in a protein
amino acids
proteins consist of information derived from
dna and rna
substances that preside over protein production
chromosomes, genes, dna, rna
___ are large structures of DNA that contain the ____, the blueprints
for making an individual
Chromosomes
genes
gives rise to rna
dna
gives rise to protein
RNA
producing a more specialized cell from a less specialized cell
differentiation
a mass of cells that form an embryo
zygote
most critic stage of development
gastrulation
what happens during gastrulation
individual tissue layers begin to form
what regulates differentiation
genes
determines what cell type each cell will become
differentiation
when cells divide but remain undifferentiated
stem cells
#NAME?
stem cells
what is mitosis
cell duplication when 2 daughter cells receive the exact nuclear
material as the original
synthesis of new dna occurs in what phase
S phase
what are the phases of Interphase in order
G1, S phase, G2
what happens during G1
the DNA double helix opens to expose the bases, RNA bases pair with
their compliments to form mRNA, once a gene is copied the helix closes
and the mRNA exits the nucleus and takes the info to the ribosome
what happens in S phase
dna replication occurs, creating 2 new strands where there was
previously only one
enzyme that helps dna synthesis
polymerase
what happens in G2 phase
more protein synthesis and cell growth;p
replacing old and dying cells with genetically identical ones
mitosis
where can mitosis occur
liver, skin, and digestive organs
cells that form a new organism via sexual reproduction
gametes
gametes merge their DNA to reproduce, but that would cause too much
DNA so they have to reduce their DNA, this process is called
meiosis
where does meiosis occur
in gametes and fertilized eggs
benefit of meiosis
extra genetic variability
individual units of DNA comprised of several genes
chromosomes
2 sets of chromosomes
diploid
1 set of chromosomes
haploid
twin hormones of diploid cells
homologous
all cells of mammals are ___, except gametes which are ___
diploid
haploid
each pair of chromosomes are called sister ___
chromatids
how many centrioles
one centriole on either side of the nucleus
at the end of metaphase, __ begins, and then mitosis is complete
cytokinesis
separating the 2 sets of chromosomes into different cells is called
cytokinesis
4 phases of mitosis
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
when spindle fibers forms and centrioles move to opposite sides of
the cell, and the nuclear membrane disappears
prophase
when the chromosomes align midway along the spindle fibers
metaphase
when chromosomes begin to separate from their daughters and
cytokinesis begins
anaphase
identical chromosomes are at opposite ends of the cell, the spindle
fibers disappear, and cytokinesis is complete
telophase
8 phases of meiosis
prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, telophase 1, prophase 2,
metaphase 2, anaphase 2, telophase 2
able to produce its own food
autotroph
cellular respiration is used by
heterotrophs
organisms that cannot produce their own food
heterotrophs
during ___, glucose is broken down by the process of glycolysis
cellular respiration
during cellular respiration, the end result of glycolysis is fed into the
krebs cycle
what does the krebs cycle produce
etp
2 processes that make up cellular respiration
citric acid cycle
and
glycolysis
the reverse equation of photosynthesis
cellular respiration
to determine is algae is an autotroph, the scientists would observe
chloroplasts
____ allow autotrophs to use sunlight to produce glucose, ____ is
found in heterotrophs
chloroplasts
mitochondria
the organelle in plants that allows photosynthesis
chloroplast
the chemical that traps energy from the sun in plants
chlorophyll
what is a genome
a complete set of dna that contains all genes
2 ways mutations in genomes can occur
error during dna replication
mutagens
enzyme that speeds up the process of dna replication
dna polymerase
how common are errors in dna replication
1 in 1,000 or up to 5% of the genes in the body
using dna repair mechanism, the error rate is lower to about
0.30%
how does the body repair errors in dna replication
mismatch repair: the wrong base is replaced by the right base
what happens if a mutation is the new dna strand is left uncorrected
the replication of a mutated strand will continue
an error in the mismatch repair process can lead to
cancer
how are mismatch repair and excision repair different
mismatch removes the wrong base when an accidental coding error
occurs and replaces it with the right base,
excision removes a whole section of dna that was affected by a
mutagen and then the dna polymerase replaces the missing section
a skin disease might be the result of what not working properly
excision repair of dna strands
reproduction cell that gives rise to sperm and ovum
germ cell
what is the only way a cancer cell can be passed on to the children
of that person
if the mutation is also on the gametes
phenotypes are
what determines physical characteristics
genotypes are
the entire set of genes that determine heredity and genetic makeup
difference between phenotypes and genotypes
pheno is outward characteristics like hair color,geno is the
inward makeup and how stuff works inside
how do you know if a plant is a pure plant
the offspring will have the same traits
alternate forms of genes
alleles
dominate alleles are written with
recessive alleles are written with
capital letters
lowercase letters
what is homozygous
when both parents give their offspring the same allele
what is heterozygous
when each parent gives their daughter a different allele for a trait
used to predict the characteristics of offspring
punnet square
when the dominate and recessive genotypes interact to form an intermediate
incomplete dominance
what would the punnet square look like if one parent had a dominate T
trait, and one had a recessive t trait. and what would be the outcome.
T T t Tt Tt t Tt Tt All
offspring will have T traits bc all will have a T allele
what would the punnet square look like if both parents had a Tt
traits. and what would be the outcome.
T t T TT Tt t Tt tt
75% will have dominate trait, 25% will have recessive, 50% will
be homogenous, 50% will be heterogenous.
what would the punnet square look like if one parent had a dominate T
trait, and one had a recessive Tt trait. and what would be the outcome.
T T T TT TT t Tt Tt
All offspring will have dominate T trait, 50% heterogenous, 50% homogenous