Definitions of human behavior
The study of human behavior is an attempt to explain how and why humans function the way they do
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
According to Maslow, human needs go beyond the obvious physical needs of food and shelter to include psychological needs, safety and security, love and belongingness, self esteem, and self actualization to achieve goals.
Human nature and motivation- Theory X
Theory X
-people have an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it whenever possible
-People must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment in order to get then to achieve the organizational objectives
-People prefer to be directed
Human nature and motivation- Theory Y
Theory Y
- work is a s natural as play and rest
- People will exercise self-direction if they are committed to the objectives (they are NOT lazy)
-Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement
-People learn to acc
Human Factors that inhibit learning
Defense Mechanisms-
The biological defense mechanism is the physiological response that protects or preserves organisms.
-Exp. when humans experience a danger or a threat, the "fight or flight" response kicks in. Adrenaline and other chemicals are activat
Types of Defense Mechanisms
Repression
Denial
Compensation
Projection
Rationalization
Reaction Formation
Fantasy
Displacement
Repression
Repression is the defense mechanism whereby a person places uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the unconscious mind.
An event that was so bad, you basically "black out", your mind shuts out that memory so you cannot recall it
Denial
Denial is a refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening. It is the refusal to acknowledge what has happened, happening, or will happen.
Compensation
Compensation is a process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weakness by emphasizing strength in other areas.
Exp. Stalls were weak, but did you see my steep turns!
Projection
Through projection, an individual places his or her own unacceptable impulses onto someone else.
Exp-The examiner was unfair, thats why I failed
Rationalization
Rationalization is a subconscious technique for justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable.
Exp- Student pilot performs poorly on a test. the student claims that there wasn't enough time to study for the test. But does not admit to failing to
Reaction Formation
In Reaction Formation a person fakes a belief opposite to the true belief because the true belief cause anxiety.
Exp. I love doing steep turns they're my favorite, in reality the student is terrified
Fantasy
fantasy occurs when a student engages in daydreams about how things should be rather that doing anything about how things are.
Displacement
This defense mechanism results in a unconscious shift of emotion, affect, or desire from the original object to a more acceptable, less threatening substitute.
Exp.- frustrated at your instructor so you go home and take it out on your spouse or someone le
Anxiety
Anxiety is a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, often about something that is going to happen, typically something with a uncertain outcome.
Normal reaction to stress
Normal individuals begin to respond rapidly and exactly, within the limits of their experience and training
Abnormal reaction to Stress
-Inappropriate reactions, such as extreme over cooperation, painstaking self-control, inappropriate laughter or singing, and very rapid changes in emotions
-Marked changes in mood on different lessons, such as excellent morale followed by deep depression
Learning Theory
Learning Theory is a body of principles advocated by psychologists and educators to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitude
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a school of psychology that explains an animal and human behavior entirely in terms of observable and measurable responses to stimuli
Classic behaviorist theory in education stressed a system of rewards and punishment or the "carrot and sti
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theory focuses on what is going on inside the mind. It is more concerned with cognition (the process of thinking and learning)
- knowing, perceiving, problem-solving, decision-making, awareness, and related intellectual activities- than with sti
John Dewey's Concept
John Dewey introduced the concept of "reflective thought". Dewey believed learning improves to the degree that it arises out of the process of reflection.
Over the years, terminology decribing reflection has spawned a host of synonyms, such as "critical t
Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain
The Taxonomy ( a classification system according to presumed relationships) comprises six levels of intellectual behavior and progresses from the simplest to the most complex: Knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
Information Processing theory
Information processing theory uses a computer system as a model for human learning. the human brain processes incoming information, stores and retrieves it, and generates response to information. This involves a number of cognitive processes: gathering an
Exp of Information Processing Theory
One way the brain deals with all this information is to let many of the habitual and routine things go unnoticed. for example, a pilot who uses the rudder when entering a turn is usually unaware of pressing the pedal, even though it involves moving a leg,
Constructivism
As implied by its name, constructivism emphasizes the constructing or building that goes on in a learner;s mind when he or she learns
Learning is the result of the learner matching new information against the preexisting information and integrating it int
HOTS
Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
The constructivist theory of learning explains and supports the learning of HOTS, which is commonly called aeronautical decision making (ADM) in aviation.
A common thread in aviation accidents is the absence of higher o
Scenario-based Training (SBT)
SBT provides more realistic decision-making opportunities environment, it correlates new information with previous knowledge, and introduces new information in a realistic context
Perception
Initially, all learning comes rom perceptions, which are directed to the brain by one or more of the five sense; sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.
Factors that Affect Perception
Both internal and external factors affect an individuals ability to perceive.
-Physical Organism
-Goals and Values
-Self-concept
-Time and opportunity
-Element of threat
Physical Organism
The physical organism provides individuals with the perceptual apparatus for sensing the world around them. Pilots, for example, must be able to see, hear, feel, and respond adequately while they are in the air.
Goals and Values
Every experience and sensation, which is funneled into one's central nervous system is colors by the individual's own beliefs and value structures.
Exp. Spectators at a ball game may see an infraction or foul differently depending on which team they suppo
Self- Concept
A student's self image, described in such terms as "confident" or "secure," or "insecure" has a great influence on the total perceptual process
Time and Opportunity
It takes time and opportunity to perceive. Learning some things depends on other perceptions, which have preceded these learnings, and on the availability of time to sense and relate these new things to earlier perceptions. Thus, proper sequence and time
Element of threat
The element of threat does not promote effective learning. In fact, fear adversely affects perception by narrowing the perceptual field
Insight
Insight involves the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes.
To insure that this occurs it is essential to keep each student constantly receptive to new experiences and to help the student understand how each piece relates to all other pieces of t
Acquiring Knowledge
Knowledge refers to information that humans are consciously aware of and can articulate
Memorization
A student's first attempt to acquire knowledge about a new topic amounts to memorizing facts about steps in a procedure
Understanding
Understanding, or the ability to notice similarities and make associations between the facts and procedural steps learned, is important next stage in knowledge acquisition process.
Concept Learning
Concept learning is based on the assumption that humans tend to group objects, events, ideas, people, etc., that share one or more major attributes that set them apart.
It also involves discrimination between types of things or ideas inside or outside of
Thorndike and Laws of Learning
These laws are universally accepted and apply to all kinds of learning; the law of readiness, law of exercise, and law of effect. Since Thorndike set down his law, three more have been added; the law of primacy, law of intensity, and law of recency
Law of Readiness
The basic needs of the learner must be satisfied before he or she is ready or capable of learning
Law of Effect
All learning involves the formation of connections and connections are strengthened or weakened according to the law of effect.
Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened, responses followed by discomfort are weakened, eit
Law of Exercise
Connections are strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued, which reflects the adage " use it or lose it.
Law of Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression and underlines the reason an instructor must teach correctly the first time and the student must learn correctly the first time.
Law of Intensity
Immediate, exciting, or dramatic learning connected to a real situation teaches a learner more than a routine or boring experience.
Real world applications (scenarios) that integrate procedures and tasks the learner capable of learning make a vivd impress
Law of Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a learner is removed in time from a new fact or understanding the more difficult it is to remember.
Domains of Learning
Interested in what and how people learn, Dr. Bloom proposed a framework to help understand the major areas of learning and thinking.
-Cognitive (thinking)
-Affective (feeling)
-Psychomotor (doing)
Cognitive Domain
The group effort to classify the levels of thinking behaviors thought to be important in the process.
One of the best known educational domains, it includes remembering specific facts (content knowledge) and the concepts that help develop intellectual abi
Six major Categories of Cognitive Domain
Knowledge-
-Recall information
-Understanding
-Application
-Analyze
-Synthesize
-Evaluate
Affective Domain
The affective domain addresses a learner's emotions toward the learning experience. It includes feelings, values, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.
Five major Categories of Affective Domain
Attitude-
-Awareness
-Respond
-Valuing
-Organization
-Integration
Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain is skill based and includes physical movement, coordination, and use of motor skill areas.
Development of these skills requires repetitive practice and measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, and techniques
Four major Categories of Psychomotor domain
Skills-
-Observation
-Imitation
-Practice
-Habit
Characteristics of learning
The ability to learn is one of the most outstanding human characteristics.
To be effective, the learning situation also should be purposeful, based on experience, multifaceted and involve an active process
Learning is Purposeful
Each student sees a learning situation from a different viewpoint. Each student is a unique individual whose past experiences affect readiness to learn and understanding of the requirements involved.
To be effective, aviation instructors need to find ways
Learning is a result of experience
The student can learn only from personal experiences, therefore, learning and knowledge cannot exist apart from a person.
A person's knowledge is a result of experience, and no two people have had identical experience.
Learning Is Multifaceted
If instructors see their objective as being only to train their students' memory and muscles, they are underestimating the potential of the teaching situation.
Students learn much more than excepted if they fully exercise their minds and feelings.
Learning is an active process
For students to learn, they need to react and respond, perhaps outwardly, perhaps inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually.
Acquiring Skill Knowledge
An aviation instructor also helps a student acquire skill knowledge, which is knowledge reflected in motor or manual skills and in cognitive or mental skills, that manifests itself in the doing of something.
Thus, skill knowledge differs from declarative
Cognitive Stage
Cognitive learning has a basis in factual knowledge. Since the student has no prior knowledge of flying, the instructor first introduces him or her to a basic skill.
Developing the student from step by step instruction, to a synchronized flow of steps
Associative Stage
As the storage of a skill via practices continues, the student learns to associate individual steps in performance with likely outcomes. The student no longer performs a series of memorized steps, but is able to asses his or her progress along the way and
Automatic response stage
Automaticity is one of the by-products of practice. As procedures become automatic, less attention is required to carry them out, so it is possible to do other this simultaneously, or at least do other things more comfortably.
Three Types of Practice
-Deliberate
-Blocked
-Random
Deliberate
During deliberate practice, the student practices specific areas for improvement and receives specific feedback after practice. The feedback points out discrepancies between the actual performance and the performance goal sought. During deliberate practic
Blocked Practice
Blocked practice is practicing the same drill until the becomes automatic.
Random Practice
Random practice mixes up the skills to be acquired throughout the practice session. This type of practice leads to better retention because by performing a series of seperate skills in a random order, the student