Theory
An integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts behavior
Hypothesis
A testable prediction often implied by a theory
Operational Definitions
Statements (description) of the procedures used to define research variables
Replication
Repeating the essence of a study, usually with different participants in different situations
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew how it would turn out
Goal of research
To describe, predict & explain behavior
Case Study
A descriptive technique in which one person is studied in depth of the hope of revealing universal principles
Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situation without manipulation or controlling the situation
Survey
A techniques for obtaining self reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them
Population
All of the people in a particular group from with a sample may be drawn
Random Sample
A subset of people who fairly represent the population because each person has an equal chance of being selected. Using a random sample increase the the generalizability (external validity) of a study
False Consensus Effect
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
Social Desirability Bias
Tendency of subjects to present themselves in a socially desirable light
Correlational Research
Research that seeks to measure the RELATIONSHIP between two variables without trying to determine causality or manipulating either of the variables
Scatterplot
A graphed cluster of dots, each which represents the values of two variables.The slope of the dots represents the direction (+ or -) of the relationship while the amount of "scatter" suggests the strength of the correlation.
Correlation Coefficient
A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other. The statistic is always between of -1.00 and +1.00
Positive Correlation
When one variable increases, so does the other
Negative Correlation
When one variable increases, the other decreases
Regardless of the strength of the relationship, correlations cannot tell us that one variable CAUSES changes in the other because
1) Variable X could be affecting variable Y OR variable Y could be affecting variable X
2) Third variables could be affecting BOTH variables X and Y
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship between two variables where none truly exists
Differential Research
Research that involves comparing two or more exiting groups on some variable of interest. The groups are typically based on some pre existing subject variable (e.g., gender, age, IQ, personality trait, etc.)
The True Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) in order to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes (dependent variables) By randomly assigning participants to other groups, other factors
Independent Variable
The factor that is being manipulated by the researchers. The theoretical "cause" in the cause and effect relationsip
Dependent Variable
The factor (a behavior or mental process) that is being measured by the researchers. The variable that is predicted to change in response to manipulation of the IV
Operational Definitions
Specific statements describing how the IV is manipulated and how the DV is measured
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to control and experimental conditions on the basis of chance, thus minimizing pre existing differences between the groups (i.e.,it controls preexisting subject variables)
Experimental Condition (or Group)
The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment of interest, that is, to one level of the independent variable
Control Condition (or Group)
The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Statistically significant difference
at the conclusion of the experiment, the mean scores the experimental and control groups receive on the DEPENDENT VARIABLE are COMPARED to determine if this exists
Internal Validity
The extent to which one can be confident that the manipulation of the IV caused the changes of DV. Internal validity can be assured only if all potential confounding variables have been controlled
Random Assignment
Controls pre existing subject variables
Control Group
Controls history, maturation, and testing effects
Placebo
An inert substance given to the control group in place of an actual medication. It controls the Placebo Effect.
Placebo Effecr
Experimental results caused by the subjects expectations alone.
Double Blind Design
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether subjects are in the control or experimental groups (commonly used in drug evaluation studies) This type of design controls subject
Subject Effects or Biases
Any response by subjects in a study that does not represent how they would normally behave if not under study. Two powerful subject effects are the placebo effect and the demand characteristics of the study
Demand Characteristics
Aspects of the study that suggest to the subjects what type of behavior is expected or desired by the researchers
Experimenter Effects or Biases
Any behavior of a researcher that might affect the behavior of the subjects or affect the measurement and recording of the dependent variable
The Quasi-experimental Design
Designs similar to true experiments, but without all of the control techniques built in (e.g., random assignment may not be used)
Ethics
The APA has strict guidelines which must be followed when using both human and animal subjects.
Experimental Method RM
Research in which the researcher controls all the conditions and directly manipulates the conditions
Examples: Create an experiment to see if sugar can cause children to be hyperactive
Correlational Study RM
A type of research that is many statistical in nature
--They determine the relationship, or correlation, between two variables
Examples: Looking at statistics to determine if smoking can cause lung cancer?
Survey Method RM
Research method in which questions are asked to subjects through a survey
Example: Determining if high school students are conservative or liberal and why
Naturalist Observation RM
The subjects are observed in their natural environment
Example: Observing kindergartners during their school day
Case Study RM
In depth analysis of a particular individual
Case studies often include face to face interviews, paper and pencil tests, and more
Example: Observing the behavior of a four year old child at home
Longitudinal Study RM
A type of study in which one group of subjects is followed and observed for an extended period of time (years)
Example: Studying the graduating class of HVHS until they reach the age of 30
Cross-sectional Study RM
Research that involves looking at different groups of people of different ages
Example: A research might measure or observe a group of young adults and compare this data with information gathered about a group of elderly participants
Cohort*-Sequential Study
A research method in which a large cross section of the population is chosen and then each group is followed for a short period of time
Example: When studying depression in people aged 30 to 90 years of age, each group (30 year olds, 40 year olds, 50 year