Features of living organisms
1) Possess chemical complexity and microscopic organization 2) Ability to extract, transform, and use energy from the enviroment3) Defined functions for each biological component and regulation of interactions between components4) Ability to sense and respond to the environment5) Ability to self-replicate6) As a species, ability to evolve and adapt to environment
The phylogeny of the three domains of life are
based on ribosomal RNA
Single cell organisms w/o a nuclear membrane include
bacteria and archaea
Cells with nuclear membranes include
Eukarya
Cell size of prokaryotic cells
1-10 um
Prokaryotes use flagella for
mobility
Prokaryotes use pili for
providing points of adhesion to the surfaces of other cells
The cell envelope of a prokaryote includes
plasma membrane and layers surrounding the plasma membrane
The outer layers for the prokaryotic cell envelope are
different for different organisms
The prokaryotic cell envelope can be formed from
membranes and peptodoglycans
Cytoplasm in prokaryotes and eukaryotes is enclosed by the
plasma membrane
Cytosol in prokaryotes and eukaryotes is
an aqueous solution containing biomolecules
A nucleoid (prokaryotes) is
genetic material with no membrane; one or several long, circular DNA molecules
the cytoskeleton in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes is
made of protein, provides structure and organization to cytoplasm, and is dynamic
The most studied bacterium is
E. coli
The size of E.coli
2 um long and 1 um in diameter
E. coli contains __________ ribosomes.
15000
Function of ribosomes in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
protein synthesis from an RNA message
Bacterial and archaeal ribosomes are _______ than eukaryotic ribsomes but serve the same function.
smaller
Size of eukaryotic cells
5-10 um
Examples of multicellular organisms include
protists, fungi, plants and animals
The outer membrane in eukaryotes is a dynamic structure of
lipids and proteins
The nucleus in eukaryotes contains __________ and is enclosed by a __________.
genetic material; membrane
Organelles are enclosed by the____________.
inner membranes
Ribosomes are
protein-synthesizing machines
Peroxisomes oxidize
fatty acids
The cytoskeleton supports the _______ and aids in the movement of ____________.
cell; organelles
Lysosomes degrade
intracellular debris
The transport vesicle shuttles _________ and ____________ between the ______, ________, and _______________ _________.
lipids; proteins; ER; golgi; plasma membrane
The golgi complex does what?
It processes, packages, and targets proteins to other organelles or for export.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is the site of
lipid synthesis and drug metabolism
The nucleus contains the
genes (chromatin)
The nucleolus is the site of
ribosomal RNA synthesis
The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is the site
protein synthesis
Mitochondrian oxidizes _________ to produce _____.
fuels; ATP
The plasma membrane separates the _______ from the ______________ and regulates________________________________________.
cell; environment; the movement of materials into and out of the cell
The nuclear envelope segregates __________ from __________.
chromatin (DNA+protein); cytoplasm
In plant cells, chloroplasts have the role of
harvesting sunlight and producing ATP and carbohydrates
In plant cells, starch granules temporarily store
carbohydrate products of photosynthesis
In plant cells, thylakoids are the site of
light-driven ATP sythesis
In plant cells, the cell wall provides _______ and ___________; it protects the cell from ____________.
shape; rigidity; osmotic swelling
In plant cells, the vacuole degrades and recycles _________________ and stores __________________.
macromolecules; metabolites
In plant cells, the plasmodesma provides a path between
two plant cells
In plant cells, the glyoxysome contains enzymes of the
glyoxylate cycle
Examples of supramolecular complexes include
chromatin, plasma membrane, cell wall
Examples of macromolecules include
DNA, proteins, cellulose
Examples of monomeric units include
nucleotides, amino acids, sugars
One of the three types of cytoskeleton is _____________ which is 6 nm wide and made from G actin.
actin filaments
One of the three types of cytoskeleton is _____________ which is 23 nm wide and made from tubulin.
Microtubules
One of the three types of cytoskeleton is _________________ which is 10 nm wide and made from alpha-keratin.
Intermediate filaments
In cytoskeletons, each filament is composed of _____________ bound ___________________ to form a long polymer.
protein monomers; noncovelantly
The cytoskeleton provides ________ and ______________ as well as help ________ and ___________ to move.
shape; organization; cells; organelles
In cell division, ________________ recognizes cellular components to be divided between daughter cells.
cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is composed of ___________ forming a meshwork.
protein filaments
In the Miller-Urey experiment, NH3, CH4, H2, H20, and H2S were converted to _____________ with the help of electrical energy.
HCN and various amino acids
What percent of the elemental composition of animal cells is H, C, N, and O?
99%
Most of the oxygen and hydrogen in animal cells comes from
water
______________ is responsible for half of the dry weight of cells.
Carbon
Bulk elements include
H, Na, K, Ca, C, N, O, F, P, S, Cl
Trace elements include
Mg, V, Cr, Mo, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn
The composition of Iron in males is _____ and is ______ in females.
3.8 g; 2.3 g
Molecular composition of human cells:Water:Protein:Lipid:Other Organic:RNA:DNA
Water: 65%Protein: 20%Lipid: 12%Other Organic: 0.4%RNA: 1.0%DNA: 0.1%
Limits on cell size: The _________________ is determined by the size of required biomolecules, while the ________________ is determined by the rate of solute molecular diffusion in an aqueous environment.
lower limit; upper limit
The four major classes of biological macromolecules include
nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and polysaccarides
Nucleic acids
store and transmit information (e.g. DNA)
Proteins
responsible for structure and catalysis (e.g. hemoglobin)
Lipids
responsible for membranes and energy storage (e.g. phosphatidylcholine)
Polysaccharides
responsible for energy storage, structure, and surface recognition (e.g. bacterial surface)
Generally, the _____________ elements have the __________ bonds.
lightest; strongest
Carbon can form ____________ bonds with up to _______ other carbons to build complex molecules with _________ and _____________ chain.
covalent; four; linear; branched
Carbon can form single bonds with __, __, and __, and form single and double bonds with __ and __.
H; S; P; O; N
Gibbs free energy, G, is the amount of ________ in a reaction at ________________________________.
energy; constant temperature and pressure
Enthalpy, H, is the heat of a reaction reflecting the _________ and ________________ in reactants and products.
number; kinds of chemical bonds
ΔG =
ΔH - TΔS
ΔG is the change in _____________ as a result of a chemical reaction and can be expressed in terms of the change in __________ and change in _________.
free energy; enthalpy; entropy
Anabolism is the set of metabolic pathways, requiring energy, that ___________ ______________ from ________ _________. Example: Protein synthesis
construct molecules; smaller units
Catabolism is the set of metabolic pathways that __________ ___________ into __________ _____________ and ___________ _____________. Example: ATP to ADP+P(i)
breakdown molecules; smaller units; release energy
RNA World Hypothesis Step 1
Creation of prebiotic soup, including nucleotides, in Earth's primitive atmosphere
RNA World Hypothesis Step 2
Production of short RNA molecules with random sequences
RNA World Hypothesis Step 3
Selective replication of self-duplicating catalytic RNA segments
RNA World Hypothesis Step 4
Synthesis of specific peptides catalyzed by RNA
RNA World Hypothesis Step 5
Increased role of peptides in RNA replication; coevolution of RNA and protein
RNA World Hypothesis Step 6
Primitive translation system develops, with RNA genome and RNA-protein catalysts
RNA World Hypothesis Step 7
Genomic RNA begins to be copied into DNA
RNA World Hypothesis Step 8
DNA genome translated on RNA-protein complex (ribosome) with protein catalysts
With the hexokinase gene, DNA undergoes _______________ into complimentary RNA, forming ________________.
transcription; messenger RNA
Messenger RNA undergoes _______________ of RNA on ___________ to polypeptide chain. This forms the _____________________.
translation; ribosome; unfolded hexokinase
The unfolded hexokinase undergoes folding of _________________ into native structure of hexokinase. This forms the _____________________________.
polypeptide chain; catalytically active hexokinase
The catalytically active hexokinase converts __________ to ______________.
ATP+glucose; ADP+glucose+6-phosphate
Anaerobic metabolism is ___________ because fuel is not completely ___________.
insufficient; oxidized
Aerobic metabolism is __________ because fuel is oxidized to _____.
efficient; CO2
At the beginning of the evolution of _________ in eukaryotes, an _______________________ is engulfed by an ancestral eukaryote, and the bacterium multiplies within it.
mitochondria; aerobic bacterium
After the aerobic bacterium is engulfed into the ancestral eukaryote, the ___________ system can now carry out __________________. Some bacterial genes move to the nucleus, and the bacterial endosymbionts become _______________________. This is a ______________ eukaryote.
symbiotic system; aerobic catabolism; mitochondria; nonphotosynthetic
A _________________________________ that uses light energy to synthesis biomolecules from CO2 is engulfed by an aerobic bacterium.
photosynthetic cyanobacterium
After an aerobic eukaryote engulfs a photosynthetic cyanobacterium, the PC becomes an ___________ and multiplies. The new cell can now make _________ using energy from sunlight
endosymbiont; ATP
In the new photosynthetic eukaryote, some cyanobacterial genes move to the nucleus and endosymbionts become ________________.
chloroplasts