memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
storage
the retention of encoded information over time
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short-term memory
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
working memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
parallel processing
The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
effortful processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
rehearsal
The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
spacing effect
The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
serial position effect
Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
visual encoding
The encoding of picture images
acoustic encoding
The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
semantic encoding
The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
imagery
mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
mnemonics
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
iconic memory
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
long-term potentiation (LTP)
An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
flashbulb memory
A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
amnesia
Loss of memory
implicit memory
Retention independent of conscious recollection.
explicit memory
Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare
hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognition
A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
A memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
priming
The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
deja vu
That eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
positive interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
repression
In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
misinformation effect
Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
source amnesia
Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.
cognition
All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
concept
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
prototype
A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
heuristic
A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.
insight
A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
creativity
Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
confirmation bias
A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
functional fixedness
The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information
availability heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct--to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments
belief perseverance
Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
intuition
An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
language
Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them as we think and communicate meaning
phoneme
In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
morpheme
In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
grammar
In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning
syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
babbling stage
Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
one-word stage
The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements
telegraphic speech
Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram-"go car"-using mostly nouns and verbs.
linguistic determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think