Define and compare kinetic energy, potential energy, chemical energy, and heat. (5.10)
Kinetic energy: energy of movement
Potential energy: energy an object possesses resulting from location or altitude
Chemical energy: potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction
Heat: energy from random molecular movement
Define the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Explain how these laws of thermodynamics relate to
energy use in a cell. (5.11)
a. 1st law: energy in universe is constant-cannot be created or destroyed
2nd law: in every energy conversion etropy is increased in the universe
b. When a cell extracts chemical energy from glucose and expels water and carbon dioxide molecules it increas
Define and compare endergonic and exergonic reactions. Explain how cells use cellular respiration and
energy coupling to survive. (5.12)
a.Exergonic reaction: chemical reaction that releases energy
Endergonic reaction: reaction that requires a net input of energy and yield energy-rich products
b. Energy coupling is the use of energy released from exergonic reactions to drive crucial enderg
Describe the three main types of cellular work. (5.13)
Chemical work: the phosphorylation of reactants provides energy to fuel the endergonic synthesis of products
Mechanical work: the transfer of phosphate groups in order to move certain body parts
Transport work: ATP driving the active transport of solutes
Explain how ATP functions as an energy shuttle. (5.13)
Energy from exergonic reactions is used to regenerate ATP from ADP. In this endergonic process, a phosphate group is bonded to ADP. A cell at work uses ATP continuously, and cycle continues.
Explain how enzymes speed up chemical reactions. (5.14)
Enzymes function as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions by lowering the initial amount of energy needed to begin the reaction.
Describe the structure of an enzyme-substrate interaction. (5.15)
The substrate is placed in the active site of the enzyme, which fits like a puzzle piece. The substrate is then converted to the products inside the enzyme and is then released.
Explain how the cellular environment affects enzyme activity. (5.15)
Enzymes function better in specific environments because its shape alters with environment as does all proteins. i.e. most human enzymes work best at body temperature and acidity
Explain how competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors alter an enzyme's activity. (5.16)
Competitive inhibitors: block the active site of the enzyme so a substrate cannot enter
Noncompetitive inhibitors: change the shape of the active site by entering the enzyme at a location other than the active site
Explain how certain poisons, pesticides, and drugs inhibit enzymes. (5.16)
These kinds of inhibitors are irreversible and quickly cause the shutting down of vital functions which can lead to death.
Describe the process of feedback inhibition. (5.16)
Feedback inhibition is when metabolic reactions are blocked by excess product.
Describe the main components of the human alimentary canal and the associated digestive glands. (21.4)
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Describe the functional components of saliva and the types and functions of the teeth in humans. (21.5)
a. Saliva protects the lining of the mouth, lubricates food for easier swallowing, neutralizes food acids to prevent tooth decay, works as an antibacterial, and begins to hydrolyze starches.
b. Chewing cuts, smashes, and grinds food, making it easier to s
Explain how swallowing occurs and how food is directed away from the trachea. (21.6)
Peristalsis, the contraction and relaxation of muscles guides food down the esophagus. The epiglottis controls the regulation between breathing and swallowing food by moving up to allow air and down to prevent other substances from entering the lungs.
Explain how the Heimlich maneuver is performed. (21.7)
The Heimlich maneuver is performed by thrusting upward under the ribcage, forcing air to try and dislodge the foreign object.
Relate the structure of the stomach to its functions. Describe the functions of the secretions of the
stomach. Finally, explain why the stomach does not digest itself. (21.8)
a. accordion-like folds allow stomach to stretch and accommodate enough food to keep us full for hours
b. -gastric juices: break apart cells in food, kill bacteria and other microbes
-HCI, pepsin, and pepsinogen create a chain which begins the digestion o
Describe the causes and treatments of heartburn, GERD, and gastric ulcers. (21.9)
a. Heartburn: caused by the backflow of chyme into the lower end of the esophagus
b. GERD: acid reflux that is frequent enough to cause damage to the esophagus; it can be treated by medication (antiacids) or lifestyle changes (stop smoking, stopping of al
Describe the different types of chemical digestion that occur in the small intestine. Explain how the
structure of the small intestine promotes nutrient absorption. (21.10)
Carbohydrate: pancreatic amylase hydrolyzes starch into maltose; maltase then splits maltose into glucose
Proteins: polypeptides are broken down by trypsin and chymotrypsin into smaller polypeptides; aminopeptidase and carboxypeptidase split off one amino
Explain how the liver helps to regulate the chemical composition of blood. (21.11)
Nutrients absorbed by the intestines are delivered into the liver. The liver then removes excess glucose and converts it into glycogen which it stores in liver cells. The liver regulates metabolism from glycogen being stored as well as the amount of gluco
Describe the structures and functions of the colon and rectum. Note the causes of diarrhea and constipation. (21.12)
The colon reclaims water from the alimentary canal. If too much water is absorbed, constipation results. If too little water is absorbed, diarrhea results.
Compare the processes and locations of cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Explain why it is accurate to say that life on Earth is solar-powered. (6.1)
a. C.r. occurs in the mitochonria of most cells (plant and animal) while photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells. C.r. consists of glycolysis, the Calvin cycle, and finally the electron chain. Photosynthesis is this same process only reve
Describe and compare the processes of breathing and cellular respiration. (6.2)
Breathing: is facilitated through the lungs and provides oxygen for c.r. as well as disposing of the waste created by it.
C.R.: uses the oxygen from breathing combined with glucose to provide energy for the body.
Provide the overall chemical equation for cellular respiration. Compare the efficiency of this process in
cells to the efficiency of a gasoline automobile engine. (6.3)
a. C6H12O6 + 6 o2 --> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATPs
b. C.R. = 40% efficency
Gasoline=25%
Explain how the human body uses its daily supply of ATP. (6.4)
-Maintaining life-sustain activities= 75% of energy
Explain how the energy in a glucose molecule is released during cellular respiration. (6.5)
The three steps in c.r. allow energy to be formed (glycolysis, calvin cycle, electron transport chain).
Explain how redox reactions are used in cellular respiration. (6.5)
Glucose is oxidized (losing hydrogen atoms) which then are transferred to making CO2. The 6 O2 molecules are reduces (gaining hydrogen atoms) to form 6 H2O.
Describe the general roles of dehydrogenase, NAD1, and the electron transport chain in cellular
respiration. (6.5)
-Enzyme dehydrogenase and coenzyme NAD+ are used to shuttle electrons in redox reactions.
-The electron transport chain gives energy from the "falling" of electrons through the release of potential energy.
List the cellular regions where glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation occur. Note whether substrate-level phosphorylation or chemiosmosis occur at each of these sites. (6.6)
a. Glycolysis: (and substrate level phosphorylation) occurs in cytoplasmic fluid
Citric Acid Cycle: occurs in mitochondria (matrix?)
Oxidative Phosphorylation: (and chemiosmosis) occurs in mitochondria (membrane)
Compare the reactants, products, and energy yield of the three stages of cellular respiration. (6.7-6.12)
Stage 1: Glycolysis
-reactants=glycolysis
products=2 pyruvate, NADH, 2 ATP
Stage 2: Citric Acid Cycle
-reactants=derivitive of pyruvate
products=NADH + FADH2, 2 ATP, CO2
Stage 3: Oxidative Phosphorylation
-reactants=NADH + FADH2
products=38 ATP
Explain how rotenone, cyanide, carbon monoxide, oligomycin, and uncouplers interrupt critical events in
cellular respiration. (6.11)
-Poisons in one category block the electron transport chain (rotenone, cyanide, carbon monoxide). Therefore the organism dies from energy starvation.
-Poisons in a second category inhibits ATP synthase (oligomycin). These poisons block the passage of H+ t
Compare the reactants, products, and energy yield of alcohol and lactic acid fermentation. Distinguish
between strict anaerobes and facultative anaerobes. (6.13)
Lactic Acid Fermentation: pyruvate is reduced to lactate
Alcohol Fermentation: pyruvate is converted to ethanol and CO?
Describe the evolutionary history of glycolysis.
Ancient prokaryotes made ATP using glycolysis back when oxygen was not present in Earth's atmosphere for almost a billion years. Glycolysis also occurs in the cytoplasmic fluid, implying it could've occurred before mitochondria and chloroplasts were prese
Explain how polysaccharides, fats, and proteins are used as fuel for cellular respiration. Explain why a gram of fat yields more ATP than a gram of starch or protein. (6.15)
a. -Carbohydrates: can be funneled into glycolysis from their sugar content
-Fats: can be divided into glycerol (which goes into glycolysis after being converted to G3P) and fatty acids (which can be broken into 2-carbon compounds an used as acetyl CoA).
Explain how nutrients are used in biosynthesis.
(6.16)
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Explain how muscles and the skeleton interact to produce movement. Explain how muscles relengthen once contracted. (30.7)
Tendons connect bones to muscle. Muscles use antagonistic action to push on one side and pull on the other of a bone to create movement. Muscles relengthen by sliding thin filament along thick filament in the sarcomere to relax the muscle.
Describe the structure and arrangement of the filaments found in a muscle cell. (30.8)
Thick and thin filaments alternate in a sarcomere and are seperated into multiple sarcomeres by z-lines.
Explain how a muscle cell contracts. (30.9)
The thin filaments (actin) slide toward the center of the sarcomere with assistance from myosin heads on the thick filament (myosin).
Explain what causes muscle fatigue. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic exercise, noting the advantages of each. (30.11)
a.
b. Aerobic exercise: requires air to take place; the main goal is to lose as many calories as one consumes
Anaerobic exercise: takes place if ATP demand outpaces oxygen supply in which fermentation (lactic acid) takes place. This process only yields 2
Define autotrophs, producers, and photoautotrophs. (7.1)
autotrophs: self-sustaining organisms that don't require organic materials
producers: organisms that make food from inorganic materials
photoautotrophs: organisms that make organic materials from energy from the sun
Describe the structure of chloroplasts and their location in a leaf. Identify specifically where most light energy is converted to chemical energy. (7.2)
a. Chloroplast consist of an outer and inner membrane, a filling fluid called stroma, and thylakoids stacked into granum. Chloroplasts are found most abundantly in the interior tissue of leaves called mesophyll.
b. Most light energy is converted to chemic
Explain how plants produce oxygen. Describe the experiments that revealed the source of the oxygen produced during photosynthesis. (7.3)
a. Plants produce oxygen by splitting water.
b. This was discovered when H?O with a heavy isotope of oxygen was tracked and found in oxygen and not other products.
Describe the role of redox reactions in photosynthesis and cellular respiration. (7.4)
a. Photosynthesis:
-6CO? is reduced to C?H??O?
-6H?O is oxidized to 6O?
b. Cellular respiration:
-C?H??O? is oxidized to 6CO?
-6O? is reduces to 6H?O
Compare the reactants and products of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle. Explain how photosynthesis relates to these reactions. (7.5)
a. Light reactions:
reactants=H?O and light
products=electrons (NADPH), ATP, and O?
b. Calvin Cycle:
reactants=CO?, NADPH, and ATP
products=Sugar, ADP and a third phosphate group, and NADP
Describe the properties and functions of the different photosynthetic pigments. (7.6)
Chlorophyll a absorbs blue-violet and red light which chlorophyll b absorbs mainly blue and orange light. The purpose of these two pigments is to broaden the spectrum of light the photosystems can absorb as much as possible.
Explain how photosystems capture solar energy. (7.7)
Pigments found in the light-harvesting complexes of the photosystems attract protons and absorb them. The pigments then pass the energy from molecule to molecule until it reaches the reaction center. The reaction center contains chlorophyll a molecules (p
Explain how the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis generate ATP, NADPH, and oxygen in the light reactions. (7.8-7.9)
Water is split and provides O? as a product as well as an electron for the photosystem which is then excited. When an excited electron falls down the chain, it releases energy that aids in the synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis (the active transfer of H? th
Compare photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation. (7.9)
Photophosphorylation: phosphorylation whose initial energy input comes from light
Oxidative phosphorylation: is the production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of the electron transport chain
Describe the reactants and products of the Calvin cycle. Explain why this cycle is dependent upon the light reactions. (7.10)
a. reactants=ATP, NADPH, and CO?
products=NADP?, ADP + third phosphate group, and sugars
b. This cycle is dependent on light reactions because the initial ATP and NADPH needed to fuel the cycle are products of the light reactions.
Review the overall process of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle, noting the products, reactants, and
locations of every major step. (7.11)
Light reactions:
-location: thylakoid membranes
-process: two photosystems capture solar energy in pigments as photons and use it to energize electrons, simultaneously water is split and O? and electrons are released; the photosystems transfer the excited
Compare the mechanisms that C3, C4, and CAM plants use to obtain and use carbon dioxide. Note
examples of plants that use each of these systems. (7.12)
-C3: the initial fixation of carbon occurs when the enzyme rubisco adds CO? to RuBP
-C4: CO? is first fixed into a four-carbon compound; when weather is hot and dry, stomata remain mostly closed
-CAM: only admits CO? at night and banks it
Describe the greenhouse effect. Explain how deforestation and the use of fossil fuels contribute to global
warming. (7.13)
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Explain how the ozone layer forms, how human activities have damaged it, and the consequences of the
destruction of the ozone layer. (7.14)
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