Science
Attempts to discover order in nature and use that knowledge to make predictions about what should happen in nature
Scientific Data
Facts obtained by making observations and measurements
Scientific hypothesis
Educated guess that attempts to explain a scientific law or certain scientific observations
Scientific theory
Well-tested and widely accepted scientific hypothesis
Scientific Law or Natural Law
Description of what scientists find happening in nature repeatedly in the same way, without known exception
Scientific methods
Ways that scientists gather data and formulate and test scientific hypotheses, models, theories, and laws
inductive reasoning
Using observations and facts to arrive at generalizations or hypotheses
Deductive reasoning
Using logic to arrive at a specific conclusion based on a generalization or premise
frontier science
Preliminary scientific data, hypotheses, and models that have not been widely tested and accepted.
consensus science
Scientific data, models, theories, and laws that are widely accepted by scientists considered experts in the area of study
input
Matter, energy, or information entering a system
flows/throughputs
Rate of flow of matter, energy, or information through a system
stores/storage areas
Place within a system where energy, matter, or information can accumulate for various lengths of time before being released
output
Matter, energy, or information leaving a system
positive feedback loop
Situation in which a change in a certain direction provides information that causes a system to change further in the same direction
negative feedback loop
Situation in which a change in a certain direction provides information that causes a system to change less in that direction
time delay
Time lag between the input of a stimulus into a system and the response to the stimulus
synergistic interaction
Interaction of two or more factors or processes so the combined effect is greater than the sum of their separate effects.
matter
Anything that has mass and takes up space.
Elements
distinctive building blocks of matter that make up every material substance
Compounds
two or more different elements held together in fixed proportions by attractive forces
mixture
combination of one or more elements or compounds
atoms
smallest unit of matter that are unique to a particular element
ions
electrically charged atoms or combinations of atoms
molecules
combinations of two or more atoms of the same or different elements held together by chemical bonds
proton
positively charged particle in the nuclei of atoms
neutrons
uncharged particle in the nuclei of atoms
electrons
negatively charged particles
nucleus
Extremely tiny center of an atom, making up most of the atom's mass. It contains one or more positively charged protons and one or more neutrons with no electrical charge
atomic number
Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
mass number
Sum of the number of neutrons (n) and the number of protons (p) in the nucleus of an atom. It gives the approximate mass of that atom
isotopes
Two or more forms of a chemical element that have the same number of protons but different mass numbers because they have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.
concentration
Amount of a chemical in a particular volume or weight of air, water, soil, or other medium.
pH
Numeric value that indicates the relative acidity or alkalinity of a substance on a scale of 0-14, with the neutral point at 7. Acid solutions have pH values lower than 7, and basic or alkaline solutions have pH values greater than 7.
chemical formula
Shorthand way to show the number of atoms (or ions) in the basic structural unit of a compound
organic compounds
Compounds containing carbon atoms combined with each other and with atoms of one or more other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine, and fluorine
genes
Coded units of information about specific traits that are passed on from parents to offspring during reproduction. They consist of segments of DNA molecules found in chromosomes.
chromosomes
Grouping of various genes and associated proteins in plant and animal cells that carry certain types of genetic information.
inorganic compounds
All compounds not classified as organic compounds
plasma
An ionized gas consisting of electrically conductive ions and electrons. It is known as a fourth state of matter
high-quality matter
Matter that is concentrated and contains a high concentration of a useful resource.
low-quality matter
Matter that is dilute or dispersed or contains a low concentration of a useful resource
matter efficiency/resource productivity
Total amount of material needed to produce each unit of goods or services
radiation
transmission of energy through space as particles or waves
kinetic energy
Energy that matter has because of its mass and speed or velocity
potential energy
Energy stored in an object because of its position or the position of its parts.
electromagnetic radiation
Forms of kinetic energy traveling as electromagnetic waves.
ionizing radiation
Fast-moving alpha or beta particles or high-energy radiation (gamma rays) emitted by radioisotopes. They have enough energy to dislodge one or more electrons from atoms they hit, forming charged ions in tissue that can react with and damage living tissue.
nonionizing radiation
Forms of radiant energy such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared light, and ordinary light that do not have enough energy to cause ionization of atoms in living tissue
temperature
Measure of the average speed of motion of the atoms, ions, or molecules in a substance or combination of substances at a given moment.
high-quality energy
Energy that is concentrated and has great ability to perform useful work
low-quality energy
Energy that is dispersed and has little ability to do useful work.
chemical change/chemical reaction
Interaction between chemicals in which there is a change in the chemical composition of the elements or compounds involved
law of conservation of matter
In any physical or chemical change, matter is neither created nor destroyed but merely changed from one form to another; in physical and chemical changes, existing atoms are rearranged into different spatial patterns (physical changes) or different combin
persistence
how long pollution stays in the air, water, soil, or body
degradable (nonpersistent) pollutant
Potentially polluting chemical that is broken down completely or reduced to acceptable levels by natural physical, chemical, and biological processes
biodegradable pollutant
Material that can be broken down into simpler substances (elements and compounds) by bacteria or other decomposers
nondegradable pollutant
cannot be broken down by natural processes
nuclear change
Process in which nuclei of certain isotopes spontaneously change, or are forced to change, into one or more different isotopes. The three principal types of nuclear change are natural radioactivity, nuclear fission, and nuclear fusion
natural radioactive decay
Nuclear change in which unstable nuclei of atoms spontaneously shoot out particles (usually alpha or beta particles) or energy (gamma rays) at a fixed rate.
radioisotopes
Isotope of an atom that spontaneously emits one or more types of radioactivity
gamma rays
Form of ionizing electromagnetic radiation with a high energy content emitted by some radioisotopes. They readily penetrate body tissues
alpha particle
Positively charged matter, consisting of two neutrons and two protons, that is emitted as a form of radioactivity from the nuclei of some radioisotopes.
beta particle
Swiftly moving electron emitted by the nucleus of a radioactive isotope.
half-life
Time needed for one-half of the nuclei in a radioisotope to emit its radiation
critical mass
Amount of fissionable nuclei needed to sustain a nuclear fission chain reaction.
chain reaction
Multiple nuclear fissions, taking place within a certain mass of a fissionable isotope, that release an enormous amount of energy in a short time
first law of thermodynamics
in all physical and chemical changes, energy is neither created nor destroyed, but it may be converted from one form to another
second law of thermodynamics
when energy is changed from one form to another, some of the useful energy is always degraded to lower quality, more dispersed, less useful energy
energy efficiency
Percentage of the total energy input that does useful work and is not converted into low-quality, usually useless heat in an energy conversion system or process.
high-throughput economics
Situation in most advanced industrialized countries, in which ever-increasing economic growth is sustained by maximizing the rate at which matter and energy resources are used, with little emphasis on pollution prevention, recycling, reuse, reduction of u
matter-recycling economy
Economy that emphasizes recycling the maximum amount of all resources that can be recycled. The goal is to allow economic growth to continue without depleting matter resources and without producing excessive pollution and environmental degradation
low-throughput economy
Economy based on working with nature by (1) recycling and reusing discarded matter, (2) preventing pollution, (3) conserving matter and energy resources by reducing unnecessary waste and use, (4) not degrading renewable resources, (5) building things that