Define tissue and explain where it falls in the hierarchy of structural organization. 4 kinds of tissue every cat meows nervously
A group of cells of similar appearance and common function. Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
How do the functions of the body as a whole (breathing, eating, elimination of wastes, etc.) relate to the processes that occur in single cells?
Cells can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic depending on their function; cells that need to secrete hormone have lots of ER and Golgi; energy storage cells have large fat droplets; cells that destroy invading bacteria have many lysosomes
How does the structure of each of the following tissues relate to its function?
Epithelial: Cuboidal
dice shaped, secretion and absorption in kidney tubules and glands
How does the structure of each of the following tissues relate to its function?
Epithelial: Columnar
elongated and column shaped, secrete digestive juices and absorts nutrients, found in lining of the intestine. Contain goblet cells which secret mucus for lubrication
How does the structure of each of the following tissues relate to its function?
Epithelial: simple squamous
Thin and flat, simple squamous tissue is good for the passage of materials via diffusion. For example, it forms the tiny air sacs of the lungs and the walls of capillaries. It also forms the smooth, friction-reducing interior lining of the heart, blood ve
How does the structure of each of the following tissues relate to its function?
stratifed squamous epithelium
Stratified squamous are also thin and flat but they are layered. Stratified squamous functions to protect underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion. The keratinized type forms the outermost layer of the skin, where it functions to prevent water lo
How does the structure of each of the following tissues relate to its function?
Connective tissue: adipose
Adipose is a loose connective tissue dominated by fat droplets and a losoe matrix of fibers and fluid. It functions is packing material between organs or padding between the skin.
How does the structure of each of the following tissues relate to its function?
Connective tissue: cartilage
Cartilage has a firm extracellular yet flexible matrix in contrast to bone, which allows it to hold bone together without ripping, and provides flexible shape to structures such as the ear and nose.
How does the structure of each of the following tissues relate to its function?
Connective tissue: bone
Bone has a hard extracellular matrix to provide structure to the vertebral organism.
How does the structure of each of the following tissues relate to its function?
muscle tissue: skeletal
skeletal muscle is voluntary, multinucleate and striated. responsible for most bodily movement, contains long fibers called myofibrils that are packed with protein filaments that move by sliding past each other
How does the structure of each of the following tissues relate to its function?
muscle tissue: cardiac
Involuntary, usually uninucleate, striated
Cardiac muscle is similar to skeletal muscle except that each cardiac muscle cell makes direct end to end physical and electrical contact with other cardiac muscle cells in order to facilitate the cardiac cycle.
How does the structure of each of the following tissues relate to its function?
muscle tissue: smooth
Involuntary, uninucleate, unstriated
Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each end, uses different kinds of neurons for control than skeletal muscles
Within single-unit smooth muscle tissues, the autonomic nervous system innervates a single cell within a sh
How does the structure of each of the following tissues relate to its function?
Nervous tissue:
short, highly branched dendrites for contacting other cells. long structures called axons. short dendrites contact other cells and transmit signals from themselves to the cell body; axons carry electrical signals from the cell body to other cells. Dendrit
How are osteocytes able to attain oxygen and nutrients?
Osteocytes obtain their necessary nutrients and gaseous exchange from blood vessels that are threaded though channels in the extracellular matrix. The channels are called Haversian canals. These larger Haversian canals communicate with small canaliculi--
Why is blood considered a connective tissue?
Blood is considered a connective tissue for two basic reasons: (1) embryologically, it has the same origin (mesodermal) as do the other connective tissue types and (2) blood connects the body systems together bringing the needed oxygen, nutrients, hormone
How does body size affect animal physiology?
As an organism's size increases, its mass-specific metabolic rate must decrease, or the surface area available for exchange of materials would fail to keep up with the metabolic demands of the organism.
Distinguish between basal metabolic rate and standard metabolic rate.
BMR measures the metabolism of a mammal, SMR measures the metabolism of an ectotherm (an animal whose body temperature depends on the environmental temperature)
Describe the location and function of interstitial fluid.
nterstitial fluid is the liquid which surrounds the cells in the body.
The function of intestitial fluid is to carry substances between the blood and the tissue cells. Substances passing out of the blood capillaries eg food,oxygen, pass through the inters
What is homeostasis? How does homeostasis relate to positive and negative feedback?
Homeostasis is regulating temperature, pH (acidity), and oxygen levels (and many other factors) are set just right for your cells to survive. Homeostasis levels are different for each species. Negative feedback is a process that happens when your systems
What is the difference between negative feedback and positive feedback? What are the components of a feedback
circuit? What are some examples of positive feedback and negative feedback?
Negative feedback is when a process needs to stop, such as the production of digestive juices when the stomach is empty. Positive feedback, when a process needs to start or accelerate, such as the production of digestive juices when there is food in the s
Endothermy and ectothermy are best understood as contrasting adaptive strategies" attempting to illustrate
conceptually?
That these two strategies involve tradeoffs. Ectotherms need less energy-rich food, but they are dependent on the environmental temperature to function; when it's cold, they slow down and are vulnerable to predation, whereas endotherms are always on the g
What is the difference between an essential nutrient and a nonessential nutrient? ?
An essential nutrient is a nutrient required for normal body functioning that either cannot be synthesized by the body at all, or cannot be synthesized in amounts adequate for good health (e.g. niacin, choline), and thus must be obtained from a dietary so
What are the four classes
of essential nutrients?
1 Fatty acids
2 Amino acids
3 Vitamins
4 Dietary mineral
Vitamins are generally classified as either watersoluble or fat-soluble? Which group is most easily stored in the body? What is the most common function of vitamins?
Fat soluble most easily stored in body because they can be stored in fat. Water soluble vitamins that are not used to catalyze reactions are excreted thriough urine.
What is the most common function of vitamins?
to act as coenzymes, A coenzyme is an organic, meaning carbon-based, molecule that helps an enzyme function. Enzymes are proteins that make chemical reactions take place faster than they otherwise would
Vitamin C is necessary for the formation of collagen. How does a vitamin C deficit lead to the symptoms of scurvy
. In the synthesis of collagen, ascorbic acid is required as a cofactor for prolyl hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase. These two enzymes are responsible for the hydroxylation of the proline and lysine amino acids in collagen. Hydroxyproline and hydroxylysi
What are the diseases arising from
deficiencies of vitamin B1
Beriberi ( /b?ri?b?ri/) is a nervous system ailment caused by a thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency in the diet. Thiamine is involved in the breakdown of molecules such as glucose and is also found on the membranes of neurons. Symptoms of beriberi include se
What are the diseases arising from
deficiencies of vitamin D
Deficiency results in impaired bone mineralization and leads to bone softening diseases including rickets in children and osteomalacia and osteoporosis in adults.[1]
Define digestion and describe why it is a necessary process
digestion is necessary for breaking down food into chemical components (mainly glucose) so as to be absorbed into the blood stream through the small intestine and be distributed throughout the body so it can be used as energy by your cells.
What is a gastrovascular cavity?
Gastro vascular cavity, as the name indicates, functions in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients and particles to all parts of the body. Organisms belonging to two major phyla, the Cnidaria and the Platyhelminthes, possess gastrovascular cavit
How does a gastrovascular cavity contribute to the absorption of
nutrients?
Once the food is inside the gastrovascular cavity, digestive enzymes are secreted into the cavity, and extracellular digestion begins. This extracellular digestion, largely limited to proteins in cnidarians, does not break down these substances completely
What are the differences between a complete digestive tract and a gastrovascular cavity? Describe some
distinct advantages that complete digestive tracts have over gastrovascular cavities.
1. Complete digestive tract allows animals to feed on large pieces of food, expanding the types of food sources that can be ingested.
2. Different chemical and physical processes can be separated within the canal, so they occur independently of each other
Why can't most animals derive nutrition from woody plants with high cellulose content?
because animals do not have enzyme cellulase
Define peristalsis and describe its role in the digestive process
A wave of contractions that propels food down the esophagus.
How is salivation controlled? What are the functions of saliva?
Salivation is controlled by various stimuli. The smell of cooking, a learned association with the time of day, or another stimulus can cause saliva to be released into the mouth from salivary glands through ducts to the oral cavity.
What is the sequence of events in swallowing? Which portions of the sequence are under voluntary control, and
which are involuntary?
The tongue pushes the ball of food (bolus) to the back of the oral cavityand into the pharynx by pressing itself onto the hard palate (voluntary). The epiglottis then blocks the trachea and allows food to flow into the esophagus (involuntary). Then perist
What are the 4 kinds of secretory cells of the stomach? Muscles Play Catch Good
1. Mucous cells which secrete a mucous that protects the epithelium against acid and stress of churning.
2. Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid (in the form of hydrogen and chlorine ions separately).
3. Chief cells secrete pepsinate, an inactive form
Why doesn't the stomach digest itself? Why is it important that gastrin stimulates mitosis in mucosa cells?
The lining of mucus on the stomach epithelium protects it from harmful gastric juices. If mucus was not formed in the stomach, the gastric juices would break down the stomach lining causing multiple ulcers and eventually complete breakdown.. The mucus neu
Why is it important that gastrin stimulates mitosis in mucosa cells?
To replenish the protective mucosa cells to protect the stomach lining from the HCl.
Describe the sequence of events, which occur in response to acid chyme entering the duodenum. Include the roles of secretin, bicarbonate, CCK, gall bladder, bile, pancreatic enzymes, and enterogastrone.
When the chyme enters the duodenum, it mixes for the first time with the digestive juices from the pancreas, liver and gallbladder, as well as from the gland cells of the intestinal wall itself. Secretin is produced by cells in the duodenum and neutralize
Where does most nutrient absorption occur? Why are the many folds, villi, and microvilli important for nutrient absorption?
Most nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine. The many folds, villi and microvilli increase the surface area of the small intestine drastically, causing the capacity for nutrient absorption to increase dramatically.
Sugars and amino acids absorbed are immediately transported to the liver, while fats are not directly transported to the liver. What is the anatomical reason for
this?
Amino acids and sugars enter the blood stream via the hepatic portal vein which converges with the capillaries and veins in lacteals of villi. This allows the liver to regulate the nutrient concentration in the blood as it is transported to the heart. The
Where does most reabsorption of water occur? What is the main source of vitamin K for humans
Most reabsorption of water occurs in the large intestine. Most vitamin K is produced by intestinal bacteria in humans
What is nutritional homeostasis? What role does Insulin play in nutritional homeostasis?
Nutritional homeostasis is the right balance of amino acids, fatty acids, ions and sugars. Insulin regulates the level of glucose in the blood.
What affects the amount of gas in a solution? Silly Teens Prattle Purposelessly
1. Solubility of gas in water
2. Temperature of the water
3. Presence of other solutes
4. Partial pressure of the gas in contact with the water.
Describe the organs of gas exchange illustrated in the animal kingdom giving particular attention to how form and
function are correlated. Fish gills
The flow of blood through the capillaries is in the opposite direction to the flow of water over the gill surface, which sets up a countercurrent exchange system in each lamella.
Countercurrent flow makes fish gills extremely efficient in extracting oxyge
Human lungs
Lungs have a large thin surface area that would cover a quarter of a basketball court, which facilitates gas exchange between air and blood. The pressure inside the lung is lower than the surrounding air, making it easy to inhale.
For the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to the alveolus, listing the
structures it must pass through on the journey.
-lungs located in thoracic cavity, enclosed in sac of two layers that are held together by surface tension of fluid between them
---air entering nostrils is filtered by hairs, warmed,
and moistened
---air travels through pharynx, through glottis, & into l
Define negative pressure breathing, and explain how respiratory movements in humans ventilate lungs.
---negative pressure breathing works like a suction pump pulling air, instead of pushing it, into the lungs
---during inhalation, contraction of rib cage causes it to expand while diaphragm contracts and descends
--lungs expand and pressure inside them is
Explain how breathing is controlled
Breathing is controlled by the autonomic system (involuntary control) by your body realising it needs oxygen, so this need stimulates the lungs to inhale. When your body needs to excrete CO2, this stimulates the lungs to exhale.
If by chemical mechanism y
Describe how oxygen moves from the alveolus into the capillary, and explain why a pressure gradient is necessary.
-blood arriving at lungs via pulmonary arteries has
lower PO2 and higher PCO2 than air in the alveoli
---blood exchanges gases with air in alveoli and the PO2 of the blood increases while the PCO2 decreases
---in tissue capillaries, gradients of partial p
Describe the structure of hemoglobin, explain the result of cooperative binding and the Bohr shift, and know how
many oxygen molecules a saturated hemoglobin molecule can carry and why they can be carried.
---four subunits with heme group that binds O2
---iron atom at center of each heme group is binder
---binding of oxygen to hemoglobin is reversible
---binding of O2 to 1 subunit induces shape change that
increases affinity of other 3 subunits for oxygen
-
How is carbon dioxide picked up from the tissues and deposited in the lungs. What is the role of carbonic anhydrase?
---carbon dioxide produced by body tissues diffuses into interstitial fluid and into plasma within a capillary
---less than 10% remains in plasma as dissolved CO2
---over 90% diffuses into red blood cells
---some is picked up and transported by hemoglobin
Explain how hemoglobin acts as a buffer.
--reversibility of carbonic acid-bicarbonate conversion helps buffer the blood, releasing or removing H+ depending on pH
Distinguish between an open and a closed circulatory system. What relationship does body size have relative to the need for a circulatory system?
In an open circulatory system, the circulatory fluid bathes the organ directly. In a closed circulatory system, blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid. This makes a closed system more efficient at transporting circulatory
How do the various blood vessels found in a circulation correlate with their function in the animal?
Arteries are tough, thick-walled vessels that take blood away from the heart under high pressure.
Small arteries are called arterioles.
Capillaries are the smallest vessels. Their walls are just one cell thick, allowing gases and other molecules to exchan
Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits. What is the function of each? Compare and contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians,
and mammals.
The blood vessels that carry blood to and from the lungs form the pulmonary circuit, which serves gas exchange.
- The blood vessels that carry the functional blood supply to and from all body tissues constitute the systematic circuit.
Compare and contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians,
and mammals.
The pulmonary and systemic circulations are completely separated in the four-chambered hearts of birds and mammals, but are only partially separated in the three-chambered hearts of amphibians and the "five-chambered" hearts of turtles and lizards.
Some a
What is the advantage of a 4-chambered heart over a three-chambered heart?
The advantage of a four chambered heart is taht there is complete separation of oxygenated blood from deoxygenated blood due to the addition of another ventricle.
Trace a drop of blood through the human heart, listingthe structures it passes through. Include the four heart valves, describe their location, and explain
their function.
First it enters the right atrium via the superior and inferior vena cava, passes through the atrioventricular valve into the right ventricle. Then pumped out of the heart through the semilunar valve by way of the pulmonary vein and out to the lungs. Once
Distinguish between systole and diastole.
Blood pressure measured in the systemic arterial circulation at the peak of ventricular ejection into the aorta is called the systolic blood pressure.
Blood pressure measured just prior to ventricular ejection is called the diastolic blood pressure.
Describe some unique properties of cardiac muscle,which allows it to contract in a coordinated manner.
Pacemaker cells that initiate contraction in the heart are located in a region of the right atrium called the sinoatrial (SA) node.
The SA node and the heart muscle cells receive input from the nervous system and from chemical messengers in the blood. The
Describe the location of the AV and SA nodes in the human heart. Describe the origin and pathway of the action potential (cardiac impulse) in the normal human
heart. Why is it important that the cardiac impulse be delayed at the AV node?
The AV (atrioventricular) node The AV node is an area of specialized tissue between the atria and the ventricles of the heart,
The SA (sinoatrial) node is located in the right atrium of the heart,
1. The SA node generates a signal
2. The signal from the S
What are the patterns in blood pressure as blood flows from the left ventricle back to the right atrium?
don't know. email me if you have this answer
How is homeostatic control of blood pressure established?
he nervous system, along with certain chemical messengers in the circulation, can accurately control blood flow to various tissues by contracting or relaxing the arteriolar sphincters.
Decreases in blood pressure elicit a powerful homeostatic response.
Fa
How do glucagon and insulin work
Glucagon, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, raises blood glucose levels. Its effect is opposite that of insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels.[1] The pancreas releases glucagon when blood sugar (glucose) levels fall too low. Glucagon causes the liv