learning
process based on experience that results in a relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural pattern
Thorndike
Functionalist & early behaviourist: focused on how the mind functioned in adapting to the environment. law of effect: precursor of operant conditioning, cause and effect chain of behaviour resolving around reinforcement. individuals do what rewards them a
law of effect
thorndike: precursor of operant conditioning, cause and effect chain of behaviour resolving around reinforcement. individuals do what rewards them and stop doing what doesnt reward them
Kurt Lewin
theory of association: forerunner of behaviorism. association is grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space. Organisms associate certain behaviours with certain rewards and certain cues w/certain situations. Ivan
konrad lorenz
founder of ethology- rejected that animal behaviour could be understood in the lab- could only be gained out in the field . He observed animals in natural environment so he could describe the behaviour and analyze the function of it
theory of association
Kurt Lewin: forerunner of behaviorism. association is grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space. Organisms associate certain behaviours with certain rewards and certain cues w/certain situations. Ivan Pavlov pro
wolfgang kohler
gestalt therapy: disagreed w/thorndike. Suggested animals in thorndikes experiments were forced to learn through trial and error due to their situation, they could however learn through insight- perception of inner relationships btwn factors that are esse
Ivan Pavlov
Classical conditioning & Noble prize= digestion, teaching an organism 2 respond 2 a neutral stimulus by pairing the neutral stimulus w/ a not so neutral stimulus. dogs salivated an sight of food and foot steps. the neutral stimulus of food steps was paire
Classical conditioning
teaching an organism 2 respond 2 a neutral stimulus by pairing the neutral stimulus w/ a not so neutral stimulus. dogs salivated an sight of food and foot steps. the neutral stimulus of food steps was paired with the food= dogs salivate at sound of steps
Neutral stimulus
Pavlov: stimulus that does not produce a specific response on its own- the light
Unconditioned stimulus
Pavlov: the not so neutral stimulus- the dog food, elicits an unconditioned response
conditioned stimulus
Pavlov: the neutral stimulus once it is pair with the unconditioned stimulus- neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response.
conditioned response
Pavlov: the response that the conditioned stimulus elicits after conditioning same as the unconditioned response. ex. salivating to food or light
simultaneous conditioning
Pavlov:the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus are present at the same time
unconditioned response
Pavlov: naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus - salivation to food
John Watson
founded behaviourism=introspection, idea of learning was that everything could be explained by stimulus-response chains and that conditioning was the key factor in developing these chains- expanded Pavlovs ideas. Experiment in 1920 on Little Albert- he wa
introspection
John Watson: peps verbal reports of their own sensations, images,and feelings
Behaviourism
John Watson: idea of learning was that everything could be explained by stimulus-response chains and that conditioning was the key factor in developing these chains- expanded Pavlovs ideas
higher order conditioning/ second order
Pavlov: Cs now acts as a UCS. experimenter would use the light as a UCS after the light reliably elicited saliva in dogs. food would no longer be used in the experiment, the light would become the UCS. a light could then be pairs with a bell(cs) until the
Forward conditioning
Pavlov: delayed and trace conditioning
delayed conditioning
Pavlov: the onset of the conditioned stimulus (tone) proceeds the onset of the unconditioned stimulus (food)
trace conditioning
Pavlov: the onset of the conditioned stimulus (tone) precedes the onset of the unconditioned stimulus (food) and the tone goes off before the food begins
backward conditioning
the onset of the unconditioned response precedes the onsets of the conditioned stimulus (tone)- proven to be ineffective = inhibitory conditioning making it more difficult to pair in another way
Skinner
operant conditioning: experimentally proved that animals are influenced by reinforcement, expanded Watsons ideas
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operant conditioning
skinner: experimentally proved that animals are influenced by reinforcement- do things that get us rewards and do not do things that we do not get rewarded for. skinner box- rats in a box with a lever that gives food- rats repeated behaviours that gave th
shaping, differential reinforcement of successive approximations
operant conditioning: rewarded the rats w/food for being near the lever and rewarded them again when touching the lever, eventually leading the the rats pressing the bar
primary reinforcement
skinner: natural reinforcement- reinforcing on its own w/out needed to be learned- food water
secondary reinforcement
skinner: learned reinforcer. often learned through society. token economy, money, awards
positive reinforcement
skinner: reward or positive event acting as a stimulus that increases the likelihood of a particular response. rewarding a dog w/ a treat stimulates the response of obeying in the future.
negative reinforcement
skinner: not punishment or a neg consequence. reinforcement through the removal of a neg event. The stimulus is removing something negative.
continuous reinforcement
skinner: in this schedule every correct response is met w/reinforcement. quickest learning, but very fragile as soon as rewards stop the behaviour does
partial reinforcement
skinner: in this schedule not all correct responses are met w/reinforcement . requires a longer learning time but once learned these behaviours are resistant to extinction. four types: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval
Fixed Ratio
skinner:partial reinforcement: brief pause after each reinforcer is delivered- animal has to hit leaver 6 times for reward. once the reward stops coming when it is meant to the behaviour stops.
variable ratio
skinner:partial reinforcement: no pauses after each reinforcer is delivered- learning takes the longest but hard to extinguish- slot machine- never know when reward is coming
fixed interval
skinner:partial reinforcement: few responses after each reinforcer is delivered- occurs in time rather that by behaviour- the rat gets food every five minutes- does little to motivate behaviour
variable interval
skinner:partial reinforcement: responding occurs at a fairly constant rate- second most effective - rewards delivered at differing time periods- never know when its coming you just know that it is- waiting for a bus to show up
token economy
an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats- desirable behaviours receive tokens to use towards reinforces such as cigaret
instinctual drift
Breland: The tendency for learned behavior to drift toward instinctual behavior over time.
primary drive (instinctual)
motivated to food or thirst
contingency management
general name for therapies that attempt 2 change the clients behaviour by altering the consequences
behavioural contract
a written agreement that states the consequences of certain acts -useful in resolving interpersonal conflict
time out
removing the client from the potentially reinforcing situation b4 he can receive reinforcement for the particular behaviour
flooding
A behavioral technique used to treat phobias in which the client is presented with the feared stimulus until the associated anxiety disappears.
implosion
Based on classical conditioning:extinction procedure in which the client imagines the disruptive stimuli, rather than actually confronting them
counter conditioning
a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning
conditioned aversion
Behavior modification based on classical conditioning in which a stimulus that attract the client (cigarettes, gambling, etc.) becomes paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus associated with punishment.
systematic desensitization
Wolp: a type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli
fixed action pattern
a stereotyped behaviour sequence that does not have 2 be learned by the animal
sign stimuli
features of a stimulus sufficient 2 bring about a particular FAP
releaser
a sign stimulus that triggers social behaviour btwn animals
supernormal stimulus
A stimulus that is more effective at triggering the fixed action pattern than the actual stimulus found in nature.
innate releasing mechanism
mechanism in the animals nervous system that connects sign stimuli w/ the correct FAPs
reproductive isolating mechanism
only found in locations where closely related species share a common environment. Any structure or function that is genetically determined and prevents interbreeding between organisms
Karl Von Frisch
Discovered the Honeybee 'dance- communication'= direction and distance of food 2 hive members
reproductive fitness
the number of offspring that live 2 be old enough to reproduce
inclusive fitness
the number of offspring that live 2 be old enough to reproduce & the # of other relatives who live to reproductive age
E.O Wilson
developed sociobiology-behaviour is due 2 a complex and dynamic interplay btwn genetic and environment
secondary drive (acquired)
reinforcers that are learned such as money, awards
exploratory drive
pep motivated to try something new or explore their environment
homeostasis
consistency or equilibrium of the internal conditions of the body, drives are aroused when deprivation creates tension, these drives activate the organism toward tension reduction
drives
internal states that arise in response to an animals physiological needs
Fritz Heider
outcome of your behaviour can be attributed to dispositional forces such as a lack of effort or insufficient intelligence or situational forces such as an unfair test or biased teachers. These influence the way we behave . Also created the balance theory
Clark Hull
performance=drive x habit. This means individuals are first motivated by drive, and then act accordingly to old successful habits. They will do what worked in the past to satisfy drives- talked about homeostasis
Victor vroom
applied the expectancy value theory of E.Tolman, applied the theory to individual behaviour in large organizations. those who are lowest on the totem pole do not expect to receive company incentives , so these carrots do little to motivate them.
Edward Tolman
Cog maps: expectancy value theory: performance= expectation x value. pep are motivated by goals they think they might actually meet, another factor is how important the goal is
Henry Murray and David McClelland
pep are motivated by a need for achievement: an assumed basic human need 2 strive 4 achievement of goals that motivates a wide range of behaviour and thinking
need for achievement
Henry Murray and David McClelland: an assumed basic human need 2 strive 4 achievement of goals that motivates a wide range of behaviour and thinking
John Atkinson
suggested a theory of motivation in which people who set realistic goals with intermediate risk sets feel pride with accomplishment, and want to succeed more than they fear failure. B/c success is so important, these pep are unlikely to set unrealistic go
Niel Miller
approach-avoidance conflict: state that one feels when a goal has pros and cons. the further one is from a goal, the more 1 focuses on the pros/reasons to approach that goal. the closer to that goal the person will begin to think of the cons/reasons to av
approach-avoidance conflict
state that one feels when a goal has pros and cons. the further one is from a goal, the more 1 focuses on the pros/reasons to approach that goal. the closer to that goal the person will begin to think of the cons/reasons to avoid
hedonism
individuals are motivated solely by what brings them pleasure and least pain
the premack principle
pep motivated to do what they do not want to do by rewarding themselves afterwards w/something they like to do
arousal
part of motivation, an individual must be adequately aroused 2 learn or preform
donald hebb
a medium amount of arousal is best 4 performance, too little or too much could hinder performance. simple tasks= high level of arousal needed, hard tasks= low level-less anxious.
yerkes dodson effect
on a graph optimal arousal looks like an inverted u curve - lowest performance @ the extremes of arousal
stimulus
refers to any event that an organism reacts to, the first link in the response chain
stimulus discrimination
the ability to know the difference between similar stimuli- a door bell and phone ringing are different
stimulus generalization
same response to a group of similar stimuli
response learning
The form of learning in which one links together chains of stimuli and responses. one learns what to do in response to a particular trigger- fire alarm= leave
perceptual learning (or concept)
learning about something in general rather than learning-specific stimulus-response chains. An individual learns about something rather than any particular response.
aversive conditioning
uses punishment 2 decrease the likelihood of a behaviour.
avoidance conditioning
teaches an animal how to avoid something that it does not want. Learning in which the learned behavior allows the subject to avoid the stimulus altogether by employing a specific response.
escape conditioning
Learning in which the learned behavior allows the subject to escape the unpleasant stimulus.
punishment
promotes extinction of an undesirable behaviour- has too many negative effects
autonomic conditioning
refers 2 evoking responses of the autonomic nervous system through training
state dependent learning
what a person learns in 1 state is best recalled in that state (state=physiological)
extinction
reverse of conditioning, encourage an organism to stop doing a particular behaviour . repeatedly withholding reinforcement 4 a behaviour or by disassociating the behaviour from a particular cue.
spontaneous recovery
reappearance of an extinguished response - even in the absence of further conditioning or training
latent learning
takes place even w/out reinforcement. The actual learning takes place some other time . Watch some1 play cards and not realize your learning buy you are
incidental learning
accidental learning, unrelated items are grouped 2gether during learning. dogs associate vets w/cars
superstitious behaviour
when some1 learns that a specific action causes an event, when in reality the 2 are unrelated. lucky shirt
chaining
act of linking 2gether a series of behaviours that ultimately result in reinforcement. 1 behaviour triggers the next and so on- alphabet
habituation
the decreasing responsiveness 2 a stimulus as a result of increasing familiarity w/ the stimulus
sensitization
increased sensitivity 2 the environment following the presentation of a strong stimulus
overshadowing
classical conditioning concept referring 2 an animals inability 2 infer a relationship btwn a particular stimulus and response due 2 the presence of a more prominent stimulus
autoshaping
Refers to experiments in which an apparatus allows an animal to control its reinforcements through behaviors. The animal, in a sense, is shaping its own behavior.
social learning theory
individuals learn through their culture. pep learn what is unacceptable and acceptable behaviours through interacting in society
observational learning
learning something by watching
Modeling
learning and behaving by imitating others- shown by Albert banduras bobo doll experiment
Albert Bandura
bobo doll experiment, children who watched adults physically abuse a blow up doll in a play room proceeded to do the same during their playtime w/the doll. Children who did not witness the aggression did not behave this way
bobo doll experiment
children who watched adults physically abuse a blow up doll in a play room proceeded to do the same during their playtime w/the doll. Children who did not witness the aggression did not behave this way. Provided support for the views of social learning th
John Garcia
performed classical conditioning experiments in which it was discovered that animals are programmed through evolution 2 make certain connections. the concept that certain associations are learned more easily that others=preparedness. He studied conditione
M.E Olds
performed experiments in which electrical stimulation of pleasure centers in the brain were used as positive reinforcement. Animals would preform behaviours 2 receive the stimulation- evidence against the drive reduction theory
Garcia Effect
preparedness: Occurs whenever nausea is paired with either food or drink.
continuous motor task
A motor task that, once started, continues naturally. Ex. Bike riding. They are easier to learn than discrete motor tasks.
ethology
The study of animal behavior in natural environment
discrete motor task
A motor task that is divided into different parts that do not facilitate the recall of each other. Ex. setting up the chessboard. It is harder to learn than continuous motor tasks.
positive transfer
previous learning that makes it easier to learn another task
negative transfer
previous learning makes it harder to learn another task
learning curve
Herman Ebbinghaus: when learning something new the rate of learning usually changes over time
Herman Ebbinghaus
learning curve
positive acceleration
rate of learning is increased
negative acceleration
rate of learning is decreased
edward thorndike
wrote the first educational psychology textbook in 1903- developed methods to assess students skills & teaching effectiveness
Educational Psychology
The study of how students learn, the effectiveness of particular teaching techniques, the social psychology of schools, and the psychology of teaching.
Aptitude
set of characteristics that are indicative of a persons ability to learn
Cooperative learning
students working together ion a projects in small groups
scaffolding learning
Occurs when a teacher encourages the student to learn independently and only provides assistance with topics or concepts that are beyond the student's capability. As the student continues to learn, the teacher aids with less to encourage the student's ind
Language
meaningful arrangement of sound.
psycholinguistics
study of the psychology of language
phonemes
the smallest unit of sound that makes a meaningful diff in a given language - discrete sounds that makeup word but carry no meaning
hermann ebbinghaus
studied memory using nonsense syllables and the method of savings, came up with the forgetting curve
morphemes
smallest meaningful unit of language- made up of phonemes, words or parts of words that have meaning
phrase
group of words that when put together function as a single syntactic part of a sentence
syntax
the arrangement of words within a sentence
grammar
a system or rules that produces well formed or legal entities such as sentences of a language - the rules btwn morphemes and syntax that make up a certain language
semantics
meaning of words and sentences
morphology
grammar rules, how to group morphemes
noam chomsky
Nativist: most important figure in psycholinguistics. Made transformational grammar=surface structure, deep structure, ideas on innate language acquisition device=LAD
prosody
inflections, accents and other aspects or pronunciation that carry meaning
transformational grammar
noam chomsky: A linguistic theory that focuses on how changes in word order affect meaning
surface structure
noam chomsky: way in which words are organized
deep structure
noam chomsky: the underlying meaning of a sentence
language acquisition device
noam chomsky: humans have an inborn ability 2 adopt generative grammar rules of the language that they hear- nativist or genetic interpretation. children only need to be exposed to language to apply it. Children do not imitate, memorize or learn through c
overregularization
a grammatical error, usually appearing during early language development, in which rules of the language are applied too widely, resulting in incorrect linguistic forms
overextension
The overly broad use of words, overgeneralizing their meaning- all fury animals are dogs- done through chaining characteristics not logic
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - "go car" - using mostly nouns and verbs
holophrastic sppech
young child uses one word to convey the whole sentence
Benjamin Whorf
studied hopi langauge- language or how a culture says things, influences that cultures prospective = his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think
whorfian hypothesis
Suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the contact of language. AKA the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
Roger brown
researched the areas of social, developmental, & linguistic psychology. He found that childrens understanding of grammatical rules develops as they make hypotheses about how syntax works and then self correct with experience
Katherine Nelson
found that language begins 2 develop with the onset of active speech rather than during the first year of only listening
Willam Labov
studies black English known as ebonics and found that it had its own complex internal structure - not simply incorrect English
lev vygotsky & Alexander Luria
russias best known psychologists, studied the development of word meanings and found them to be complex and altered by interpersonal experience. Language is a tool involved in the development of abstract thinking
Charles osgood
studied semantics(word meaning)- created semantic differentiation charts which allowed pep 2 plot the meanings of words on graphs. results= pep w/similar backgrounds and interests plotted words similarly - words have similar connotations(implied meaning)
Language acquisition
1 year= first word/s
2 =>50 words usually in 2 & 3 word phrases
3= 1000 word vocab- use many grammatical errors
4= grammar problems are random exceptions
Memory
mental capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information
Explicit uses of memory
conscious effort to encode or recover info through memory processes
Implicit uses of memory
availability of information through memory processes w/out conscious effort to encode or recover information
procedural memory
memory for how things get done - the way perceptual, motor, cognitive skills are acquired, retained and used
declarative memory
memory for info such as facts and events- semantic and episodic
semantic verification task
subjects are asked 2 indicate whether or not a simple statement presented is true or false - experimenter measures the time it takes for the subject to respond-response latency = pattern of response latency will semantic knowledge is stored in memory
Semantic Memory
remembering general knowledge
collins and loftus
spreading activation model= semantic memory - the shrter distance btwn two wrds the closer the words are related in semantic memory
episodic memory
remembering particular events you have personally experienced
encoding
the process by which a mental representation is formed in memory
storage
retention of encoded material over time
retrieval
recovery of stored info from memory
sensory memory
the initial memory processes involved in the momentary preservation of fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli
iconic memory
memory system in the visual domain that allows large amounts of info 2 b stored for very brief durations
echoic memory
sensory memory that allows auditory info 2 be stored for brief durations
short term memory
memory processes associated w/ preservation of recent experiences & w/retrieval of info from long term memory. Limited capacity & stores info 4 only a shrt length of time w/out rehearsal
sensory memory
the initial memory processes involved in the momentary preservation of fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli
maintenance rehearsal
repeating the info - keeping info in short term memory
long term memory
memory processes associated w/ the preservation of info for retrieval at a later time
elaborative rehearsal
organizing the info & associating it w/info already in long term memory - getting info into long term memory
whole report procedure
subjects look for a fraction of a second @ a visual display of 9 items. then asked 2 recall as many as possible. on average 4-9- capacity of sensory memory is about 4 items - george sperling disagreed
partial report procedure
george sperling: subjects look for a fraction of a second @ a visual display of 9 items- asked 2 recall a row - instead of a 4 item limit it was now 9
recall
reproducing information you have previously been exposed 2
chunking
process of taking single items of info & recording them on the basis of similarity or some other organizing principle
working memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
retrieval cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.
recognition
realizing that a certain stimulus event is 1 you've seen or heard b4
primacy effect
words presented at the beginning of a list are remembered second best
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
recency effect
words presented at the end of a list are remembered best
clustering
when asked 2 recall a list of words pep normally recall words belonging to the same category
contextual distinctiveness
The assumption that the serial position effect can be altered by the context and the distinctiveness of the experience being recalled.
generation recognition
an attempt 2 explain why you can usually recognize more than you can recall; model suggests that recall involves the same metal process involved in recognition plus another not required 4 recognition
semantic feature comparison model
smith, shoben, rips in 1970s. concepts are represented by sets of features, some of which are required for that concept, and some of which are typical of that concept - the key is the amount of overlap in the feature lists of the concepts
spreading activation theory
semantic memory organized into map of interconnected concepts - key is the distance btwn
levels of processing theory
aka depth or processing theory: Craik & Lockhart- what determines how long u will remember material is not what memory system it gets into but the way in which u process the material-item entering mem is analyzed in stages=physical(focus on appearance, si
paivios dual code hypothesis
info can b stored/encoded visually&verbally- abstract info=verbally, concrete info=visually
decay theory
if the information in long-term memory is not used or rehearsed it will eventually be forgotten.
inhibition theory
forgetting is due to the activities that have have taken place btwn original learning and later attempted recall
retroactive theory
forget what u learned earlier as u learn something new
method of loci
system of associating info w/some sequence of places of which you are familiar
recall specificity
the assumption that recall will be best if the context at recall approximates the context during the original encoding
sir frederick bartlett
war of ghosts- found that the subjects changed the story based on their cultures, expectations, and schema-investigated the role of schemata in memory; concluded that memory is largely a reconstructive process
elizabeth loftus
studied eyewitness mem & concluded that our memories can be altered by presenting new info or by asking misleading questions
zeigarnik effect
tendency to remember incomplete tasks better than complete ones.
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
functional fixedness
inability to use a familiar object in an unfamiliar way
divergent thinking
attempting 2 produce as many creative answers 2 a question as possible
heuristics
shortcuts and rules of thumb we use when making decisions
availability heuristic
making decisions about frequencies based upon how easy it is 2 imagine the items involved
representativeness heuristic
categorizing things on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical image of the category
base rate fallacy
ignoring the numerical info about the items being referred 2 when categorizing them
fluid intelligence
Raymond Cattell: increases throughout childhood and adolescents levels off in young adulthood and begins
crystallized intelligence
Raymond Cattell: intelligence that increases throughout the lifespan
Charles Spearman
suggested that individual differences in intelligence were largely due to diff in amounts of a general factor called called g and specific factor called s
Louis Thurstone
used factor analysis 2 study primary mental abilities- factors more specific than g but more general than g- identified 7 primary mental abilities
Robert sternberg
proposed triarchic theory that divides intelligence into 3 types: componential (test), experiental (creativity), contextual(street smart)
McClelland and Rumelhart
suggested that the brain processes info using parallel distributed processing (PDP)
Social Psychology
branch of psychology that studies the effect of social variables on individual behaviour, attitudes, perceptions and motives. Also studies group and intergroup phenomena
Consistency Theory
pep prefer consistency & will change or resist changing attitudes based upon this preference
balance theory
fritz Heider: how the three elements are related: the person= P, another person=O, or a thing/idea/some other person=X. Balance= all 3 fit together no balance=stress and remove stressor
cognitive dissonance theory
leon festinger:state of conflict some1 experiences after making a decision, taking an action, or being exposed info that in contrary 2 prior beliefs, feelings, values
free choice dissonance
A person makes a choice between several desirable behaviors
forced compliance dissonance
Individual is forced into behaving in a manner that is inconsistent with his or her beliefs and attitudes
post decisional dissonance
dissonance that emerges after a choice
spreading of alternatives
meaning the relative worth of the 2 alternatives is spread apart
Daryl bems
self perception theory - as an alternative to cognitive dissonance = The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs.
minimal justification effect
when behaviour can be justified by means of external inducements their is no need 2 change internal cognitions. When external justification is minimal you will reduce you dissonance by changing cognitions
over justification effect
when you give a reward for something already enjoyed, it decreases intrinsic motivation for that activity
carl hovland
studied attitude change as a process of communicating a msg w/the intent 2 persuade some1. 3 components: communicator, communication, situation
elaboration likelihood model of persuasion
Petty & cacioppo: 2 routes of persuasion: central (issue important 2 us) & peripheral (not very important to us)
william mcguire
how psychological inoculation could help pep resist persuasion
social comparison theory
leon festinger: we are drawn 2 affiliate bc of a tendency 2 evaluate ourselves in relationship 2 other pep. Has 3 principles: pep prefer 2 evaluate themselves by objective/nonsocial means, the less similarity of opinions/ abilities btw 2 pep the less tend
reciprocity hypothesis
like pep who indicate that they like us
gain loss principle
we will like someone more if their liking for us has increased compared 2 someone who always liked u. like someone less if they're liking for us has decreased rather than they disliked u consistently.
social exchange theory
weighs the rewards and costs of interacting w/some1
equity theory
consider cost and rewards to self and other person - needs to be equal
mere exposure effect
robert zajonc: repeated exposure 2 a stimulus leads2 enhanced liking for it
batsons empathy alturism
when faced w/ situations in which others may need help, pep might feel distress, might feel empathy- determine helping behaviour - pep felt distress left, pep who felt empathy helped
frustration aggression hypothesis
when pep are frustrated they act aggressively-frustration from unfulfilled needs. greater unfulfilled need=greater aggression.
autokinetic effect
Muzafer Sherif, study conformity - phenomenon that takes place when the eye looks at an stationary, bright light in the dark for a long time. After a period of time, the light appears to move, but really is not. Pep changed how much they thought the light
solomon Asch
studied conformity by asking subjects 2 compare length of lines - subjects yield 2 group pressure & choose incorrect line
stanley Milgram
obedience study- experimenter prods subject 2 give electric shock 2 other person, subjects shocked other person- majority up to the max
compliance
change in behaviour that occurs as a result of situational or interpersonal pressure
foot in the door effect
compliance w/ small request increases compliance with large request
Clark and Clark
self perception- doll preference task- showed black and white children black and white dolls and asked to describe them- both children preferred white doll
self efficacy
people with high self-efficacy are optimistic about their own ability to get things done whereas people with low self efficacy feel a sense of powerlessness; said peoples sense of self efficacy has a powerful effect on personality
attribution theory
tendency for individuals 2 infer the causes of other peps behaviour - a way of explaining others' behavior by either one's disposition or one's situation
fundamental attribution error
The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
halo effect
allow a general impression of someone to influence other more specific evaluations of the person
M.J lerner
proposed concept of belief in a just world - good things happen to get pep- bad to bad pep. This increases likelihood of blaming the victim
theodore newcomb
studied political norms : Experiment that studied the influence of group norms in a small liberal college. The student's parents were republican and conservative. But the students became liberal with time and stayed that way 20 years after. Those who didn
edward hall
studied norms for interpersonal distance/interactions (proxemics), cultural norms govern how far we stand from others
social loafing
The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.
irving janis
developed the concept of group think 2 explain how group decision making can sometimes go awry
groupthink
tendency of decision making groups 2 strive for consensus by not considering undesirable input
risky shift
group decisions are riskier than average individual choices
value hypothesis
risky shift occurs in situations in which riskiness is culturally valued
group polarization
tendency 4 group discussion 2 enhance the groups initial tendency's 2ward riskiness or caution
kurt lewin
research 2 determine the effects of different leadership styles - autocratic (hostile, aggressive, leader dependent), democratic (satisfying, cohesive), laissez faire(less efficient, less organized, less satisfying).
prisoner dilemma
cooperation & competition
robbers cave experiment
Muzafer Sherif, having superordinate goals increases intergroup cooperation
cross sectional study
groups of participants of diff ages are observed and compared at a given time
sequential cohort
Research method in which groups of subjects at different ages are compared with one another as well as studied repeatedly over time.
gregor mendel
study of genetics; observed the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants- he hypothesized genes and allele (either dominant of recessive)
genotype
An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.
phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.
R.C Tryon
1942, studied the genetic basis of maze running ability in rats= might bright, maze dull, intermediate rats
lewis terman
longitudinal study of gifted children; study compared a group of children w/high IQs (135 and above) w/ groups of children typical of general pop to discover similarities and differences
down syndrome
form of severe intellectual disability that results from an extra 21st chromosome
PKU
genetic defect in which the child lacks the enzyme needed 2 digest phenylalanine can be controlled w/a strict diet
Turners syndrome
found in males w/an extra x chromosome
Klinefelters syndrome
found in females w/an extra x chromosome
zygote
the sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell and forms a single cell
germinal period
the fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube & is implanted into uterine wall
embryonic period
8 weeks following the germinal period; embryo increases in size by 2 mill %
fetal period
3rd month with measurable electrical activity in fetus brain
rooting reflex
infants turn their heads in direction of stimuli applied 2 cheek
moro reflex
infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out theirs arms, extending fingers, bringing their arms back 2 their body essentially hugging themselves
babinski reflex
infants toes spread apart when soles of feet are stimulated
grasping reflex
infants automatically close their fingers around objects place in their hands
jean piaget
adaptation takes place through assimilation (interpret new info based on existing schema) and accommodation (new info doesnt fit existing schema -modify) children pass through 4 stages of cog development : sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operationa
sensorimotor
Piaget Stage 1: 0-2 child develops object permanence (objects exist independently of an individual action or awareness) and the beginning of symbolic thought - object permance develops
preoperational
Piaget Stage 2: 2-7 childs thought marked by egocentrism (inability 2 take other perspectives into account) and centration (focus on one aspect at a time), has improved ability to use symbolic thought- child has not mastered conservation(physical properti
concrete operational
Piaget Stage 3: 7-11 child masters conservation- child can conserve and take the perspective of others into account- have difficulty w/ abstract thought
formal operational
Piaget Stage 4: 11-> person has the ability to think like a scientist
zone of proximal development
Lev Vygotsky; the range between the level at which a child can solve a problem working alone with difficulty, and the level at which a child can solve a problem with the assistance of adults or children with more skill.
pragmatic
efficient use of language - same sentence has diff meanings depending on the way it is spoken
holophrasis
use of a single word to express a whole thought- toddlers
errors of growth
Misuse of grammar characterized by universal application of a rule, regardless of exceptions; seen in children during language development.
sigmund freud
psychosexual development
oral
Freud: 0-1 weaning - energy centered on the mouth- can lead to excessive dependency
anal
Freud: 2-3 toilet training- fixation can lead to excessive orderliness and messiness
phallic
Freud: 4-5 Oedipus/electra complex, vanity & recklessness or the opposite
latency
Freud: 6-12 development of defense mechanisms
genital
Freud: 13-18 mature sexual intimacy
psychosocial theory
erik erickson - development is a sequence of central life crisis
trust vs mistrust
0-1: basic sense of safety/insecurity anxiety
autonomy vs shame and doubt
1-3: perception of self as an agent capable of controlling own body and making things happen/ feeling inadequate to control events
initiative vs guilt
3-6: confidence in oneself as an initiator & creator/ lack of self worth
industry vs inferiority
6-12: adequacy in basic social and intellectual skills/ lack of confidence
identity vs role confusion
adolescents: comfortable sense of self as a person/ unclear sense of self
intimacy vs isolation
early adult: capacity 4 closeness & commitment 2 another/ feeling alone
generativity vs stagnation
middle adult: focus concern to family society and future gen/ self indulgent
integrity vs despair
late adult: sense of wholeness, satisfied w.life/ feelings of disappointment
jerome kagan
conducted longitudinal study 2 examine developmental trajectories of childrens temperament - inhibited/un styles as infants predicted future temperament
peter wolff
crying communicates needs- basic cry= hunger, angry cry= frustration, pain cry= pain
Harry Harlow
used monkeys & surrogate mothers 2 study the role of contact comfort and bond formation
John Bowlby
studied attachment in children, 3 types insecure avoidant (type A), secure (Type B) insecure/resistant (Type B)
mary ainsworth
strange situation
Konrad Lorenz
studied imprinting in birds, rapid formation of an attachment bond btwn an organism and an object in the environment
Lawrence kohlberg
stages of moral reasoning: preconventional morality (punishment & obedience)(orientation twrds reciprocity) conventional morality (good child orientation)(law and order orientation) principled morality(social contract orientation)(ethical principle orient
Diana Baumrind
studied parenting style and discipline, three parenting styles : authoritarian (stern, low warmth), authoritative, permissive
Carol Gilligan
Presented feminist critique of Kolhberg's moral development theory; believed women's moral sense guided by relationships
psychodynamic theory
freud: behaviour is explained in terms of past experiences & motivational forces & actions are viewed as stemming from inherited instincts, biological droves & attempts 2 resolve conflicts btwn personal needs and social requirements
Id
primitive, unconscious part of the personality that acts on impulse w/out considering society's values, standards, morals governed by pleasure principle
ego
Reality Principle: aspect of personality involved in self preservation activities & in directing instinctual drives and urges into appropriate channels
superego
conscience : aspects of personality that represents the internalization of societys values, standards and morals.
defense mechanisms
mental strategies used by the ego to defend itself against conflicts experienced common characteristics: they deny or distort reality & they are unconscious
repression
painful thoughts, feelings, memories are excluded from conscious awareness
suppression
Voluntarily denying unpleasant thoughts and feelings
projection
attributes forbidden urges to others (i hate my uncle turns into my uncle hates me)
reaction formation
switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites
rationalization
socially acceptable explanation for inappropriate behaviour or thoughts
regression
person reverts to an earlier stage of development
sublimation
unacceptable urges into socially acceptable ones
displacement
pent up feelings discharged on other objects and pep
collective unconscious
carl Jung; powerful system that is shared among all humans & considered 2 b a residue of experiences of our early ancestors
archetype
carl jung; thought or image that has an emotional element -persona,anima,animus,shadow
persona
mask adopted by a person in response 2 the demand of social convention
anima and animus
help us to understand gender- fem behaviour in males and male behaviour in females
shadow
animal instincts humans inherited
carl Jung
psychodynamic theorist who broke w/freud over the concept of the libido. Suggested that the unconscious could be divided into the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious, w/archetypes being in the collective unconscious
Alfred Adler
psychodynamic theorists best known for the concept of the inferiority complex- individuals sense of incompleteness/imperfection both physically and socially. Striving towards superiority drives the personality
creative self
force by which each individual shapes his or her uniqueness
fictional functionalism
an individual is motivated more by his or her expectations of the future than by past experiences
Karen Horney
psychodynamic theorist who suggested that there were 3 ways to relate 2 others; moving towards, moving against, moving away from. The neurotic personality is governed by 1 of 10 needs - resemble healthy needs except that are disproportionate in intensity,
anna freud
founder of ego psychology
object relations theory
look at the creation and development of internalized objects(symbolic representation) in young children (Klein, Winnicott, Mahler, Kernberg)
psychoanalysis
freud; form of psychodynamic therapy, prolonged technique for exploring unconscious motivations and conflicts in neurotic, anxiety ridden individuals
hypnosis
altered state of awareness characterized by deep relaxation, susceptibility 2 suggestions, & changes in perception, memory, motivation and self control
free association
therapeutic method in which a patient gives a running account of thoughts, wishes, psychical sensations and mental images as they occur
dream interpretation
psychoanalytic interpretation of dreams used 2 gain insight into a persons unconscious motives and conflicts
resistance
inability or unwillingness of a patient in psychoanalysis 2 discuss certain ideas, desires, experiences
transference
process by which a person in psychoanalysis attaches 2 a therapist feelings formerly held twrd some significant person who figured into past emotional conflict
countertransference
psychoanalyst develops personal feelings about a client bc of perceived similarity of the client 2 sig pep in the therapists life
neo-freudian approach
more emphasis on current interpersonal relationships and life situations than on childhood experiences and psychosexual development
martin seligman
learned helplessness theory of depression
learned helplessness theory of depression
placed dogs in a cell with high walls and shocked them - the dogs initially tried to jump free, the dogs stopped trying to escape b/c they couldnt
cognitive theory for depression
aaron beck: therapeutic approach that combines the cognitive emphasis on thoughts & attitudes w/ the behavioural emphasis on changing performance
rational emotive therapy
Albert ellis: personality change based on changing irrational beliefs that cause undesirable, highly charged emotional reaction such as severe anxiety change irrational beliefs to rational beliefs
field theory
phenomenological personality theory=Kurt Lewin= humanism; psychological theory which examines patterns of interaction between the individual and the total field, or environment
abraham maslow
hierarchy of human motives . Physiological-safety-love/belonging-esteem-self actualization
george kelly
based personality theory of the notion individual is a scientist - person who devises and tests predictions about the behaviour of sig pep in his/her life, person constructs a scheme of anticipation of what others will do based his knowledge, perception,
client centered therapy
a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate client's growth. Also called person-centered therapy.
unconditional positive regard
according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
type a personality
Personality characterized by (1) a strong competitive orientation, (2) impatience and time urgency, and (3) anger and hostility.
type b personality
Personality characterized by relatively relaxed, patient, easygoing, amicable behavior.
gordon allport
viewed traits as the building blocks of personality & the source of individuality = 3 kinds of traits: cardinal (traits around which a person organizes life), central (major characteristics of a person like honest), secondary (personal features that predi
functional autonomy
A given activity or form of behavior may become an end or a goal in itself, regardless of its original reason for existence.
herman witkin
studied field-dependence (see the forest) and field-independence (see the tree) using the rod and frame test
field dependence
at one pole is the capacity 2 make specific responses 2 perceived specific stimuli (field independence) at the other pole is a more diffuse response 2 a perceived mass of somewhat undifferentiated stimuli - field dependence
julian rotter
internal vs external locus of control. The probability that u will engage in given behaviour is determined by ur expectation of attaining a goal that follows the activity and by the personal value of that goal
mechiavellianism
tendency to direct much of one's behavior toward the acquisition of power and the manipulation of other people for personal gain.
ADHD
childhood disorder inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity
Autism spectrum
developmental disorder characterized by severe disruption of a childs ability to form social bonds and use language
schizophrenia
may have all of the following= hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thought, inappropriate affect, catatonic behaviour
positive symptoms
are behaviours, thoughts or affects added 2 normal behaviour - delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech/behaviour
negative symptoms
symptoms tht involve the absence of normal or desired behaviour - flat affect, blunt expression
delusions
False beliefs held by a person who refuses to accept evidence of their falseness
delusions of reference
false belief that public events or people are directly related to the individual.
delusions of persecution
believe that a person or group seeks to harm them. They may think that people are able to read their minds and control their thoughts
delusions of grandeur
a delusion (common in paranoia) that you are much greater and more powerful and influential than you really are
hallucinations
False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.
disorganized thought
loosening of association, exhibted as speech in which ideas shift from one subject to another so you can;t follow train of thought
blunting
severe reduction in intensity of affect expression
flat affect
a lack of emotional responsiveness
inappropriate affect
Expressing contradictory behavior when describing or experiencing an emotion (e.g., smiling when discussing something sad; laughing when talking about the death of a loved one).
catatonic motor behaviour
movement and activity may be significantly reduced or may have bizarre movement
prodromal phase
patient goes through phase characterized by poor adjustment, evidence of deterioration, social withdrawl, role functioning impairment, peculia behavior, inappropriate affect, unusual experiences
process schizophrenia
A type of schizophrenia that develops gradually. Lower rate of recovery.
reactive schizophrenia
onset of symptoms is intense and sudden - recovery better
dopamine hypothesis
excess dopamine levvels in certain areas of the brain= schizophrenia
major depressive disorder
mood disorder characterized by intense feelings of depression over an extended time, w/out the manic high phase of bipolar depression
bipolar disorder
mood disorder with alternating states of mania and depression . Type 1: manic episodes, type 2: hypomania
hypomania
a mild form of mania, marked by elation and hyperactivity.
persistent depressive disorder
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cyclothymic disorder
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catecholamine theory of depression
Too much norepinephrine or serotonin in the synapse leads to mania, while too little leads to depression
somatoform disorder
psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause
conversion disorder
A rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found.
illness anxiety disorder
condition marked by intense preoccupation with the possibility of a serious undiagnosed illness
dissociative amnesia
an inability 2 recall past experiences
dissociative fugue
amnesia that accompanies a sudden, unexpected move away from ones home or location of usual daily activities - confused about his or her identity=make new one
dissociative identity disorder
A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder.
depersonalization disorder
persistent feelings of being detached from self or outside of ones body, or mental processes, reality testing remains intact, causes social or occupational impairment
schizoid personality disorder
is a pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression- not the same as schizophrenia
narcissistic personality disorder
grandiose sense of self importance o uniqueness, preoccupation w/fantasies of success, need 4 constant admiration and attention, feelings of entitlement
borderline personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by lack of stability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotion; impulsivity; angry outbursts; intense fear of abandonment; recurring suicidal gestures
antisocial personality disorder
disregard for and violation of the rights of others - serial killers- repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, lack of remorse.
diathesis stress model
suggests that a person may be predisposed for a mental disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress
Rosenhan
investigated the effect of being labeled mentally ill by having pseudopatients admitted into mental hospitals
Szasz
suggested that most mental disorders treated by clinicians are not mental disorders at all- wrote the myth of mental illness
Franz Gull
developed phrenology- if a particular trait were well developed then the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand
Pierre Flourens
first person to study major sections of the brain and their functions - he did this by removing certain parts of the brain (extirpation/ablation) mostly on pigeons = specific parts had specific functions & removal of one part weakens the brain
William James
functionalism= how mental processes help individuals adapt 2 their environments
sensory neurons (afferent)
neurons that carry msgs from sense receptors twrds the CNS
motor neurons (efferent)
carry msgs away from the CNS twrd muscles and glands
interneurons
brain neurons that relay msgs from sensory neurons 2 other interneurons or motor neurons- linked to reflex behaviour
reflex arcs
Neural circuits that control reflexive behavior
central nervous system (CNS)
Brain & spinal cord:
Peripheral Nervous system (PNS)
Somatic nervous system & autonomic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
parasympathetic nervous system & sympathetic nervous system : Walter Cannon looked @: subdivison of the peripheral nervous system that controls the bodys involuntary motor responses. Regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, glandular secretions. Regul
somatic nervous system
subdivision of peripheral nervous system, consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout skin & muscles.
parasympathetic nervous system
subdivision of the ANS: resting & digesting, Achetylcholine, Facilitates vegetative non emergency responses- slows heartbeat and increases digestion - conserve energy
sympathetic nervous system
subdivision of the ANS: activated in stress, fight or flight, body mobilizes for fighting/running 4 life, increase heart rate, dilate pupils, increase blood sugar , increases respiration
hindbrain
brain meets spinal cord- manages vital functioning necessary 4 survival= balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, general arousal (sleeping, waking) CEREBELLUM, MEDULLA OBLONGATA, RETICULAR FORMATION
midbrain (mesencephalon)
above hindbrain, manages sensorimotor reflexes that promote survival. It receives sensory and motor info. INFERIOR AND SUPERIOR COLLICULI
forebrain
above midbrain, intellectual and emotional capacities= complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioural processes. Associated w/ emotion and memory. This area has the greatest influence on human behaviour = CEREBRAL CORTEX, BASAL GANGLIA, LIMBIC SYSTEM, THA
brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.
limbic system
forebrain: emotion and memory- interlinked structures that form a border around the brainstem
cerebral cortex
forebrain: outer covering of cerebral hemispheres- complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioural processes. Language processing, problem solving, impulse control, long term planning.
thalamus
forebrain: sensory relay station
hypothalamus
forebrain: hunger and thirst, homeostatic functions(regulate metabolism, temp, water balance) Osmoregulation done by osmoreceptors(in this area of the brain) maintain water balance. Emotional experience during high arousal, aggressive behaviour, sexual be
lateral hypothalamus
forebrain: hunger center bc it has receptor thought 2 detect when your boy needs more fluids and food - when to begin eating or drinking - aphagia
aphagia
loss or lack of the ability to eat or swallow- injury to lateral hypothalamus
ventromedial hypothalamus
tells you have had enough to eat - hyperphagia
hyperphagia
very hungry-excessive eating- lesions in ventromedial hypothalamus
anterior hypothalamus
sexual activity, lesions lead to inhibition of sexual activity
phylogeny
Evolutionary history of a species or group of species.
medulla oblongata
hindbrain: vital functioning= breathing, digestion, heartbeat, blood pressure
pons
hindbrain: above medulla- contains sensory and motor tracts btwn the cortex and medulla
cerebellum
hindbrain: refined motor movements, helps maintain posture and balance, coordinates body movements
reticular formation
hindbrain into midbrain: regulates arousal and alertness and attention
superior colliculi
midbrain: visual sensory input-seeing
inferior colliculi
midbrain: sensory info from auditory senses- reflex 2 sudden noises -hearing
Basal Ganglia
coordinates muscle movement as it receives info from the cortex & relays this info through the extrapyramidal motor system to the brain & the spinal - plays a role in schizophrena and parkinsons
ventricles
fluid filled cavities in the middle of the brain that link with the spinal canal and run down the middle of the spinal cord - filled with cerebrospinal fuild
cerebrospinal fluid
fluid in ventricles
septal nuclei
limbic system: pleasure center and inhibits agression - James olds & peter milner discovered that mild stimulation is intensely pleasurable and sexually arousing. Lesions produce septal rage
amygdala
limbic system: defensive & aggressive behaviour, studied by kluver and bucy, lesions produce dosile behaviour and hypersexual states
hippocampus
limbic system: learning and memory processes: lesions produce anterograde amnesia
frontal lobe
prefrontal lobe & motor cortex: executive function, governs & intergrates cog &behavioural processes, it is an area that combines input from diff brain regions, receives incoming sensory info and sends out motor impulse commands
brocas area
frontal lobe- usually left hemisphere, it is responsible 4 speech production
temporal lobe
auditory cortex & wernikes area(language reception & comprehension= understand language), memory processing (hippocampus), emotional control, & lang
wernikes area
language reception & comprehension= understand language
occipital lobe
striate cortex: david hubel & torsten wiesel: visual cortex, learning and motor control
parietal lobe
spatial processing & maniuplation, where the somatosensory cortex is located- involved in somatosensory info - destination 4 all incling sensory signals for touch, pressure, temp and pain
conralaterally
cerebral hemisphere communicates w/ opposite side of brain
ipsilaterally
cerebral hemisphere communicates w/same side of body
left hemisphere
dominant brain side: letters word, language related sounds, speech, reading, writing, complex movement
right hemisphere
non dominant brain side: faces, music, emotions, creativity, sense of direction
soma
cell body, contains nucleus
dendrites
receive incoming info from other neurons via postsynaptic receptors
presynaptic terminal
sacs filled w/neurotransmitters - axon releases chemicals that cross through the junction btwn 1 neuron and the next
axon
neurons info sender conveying an impulse twrd other neurons or an organ or muscle
axon hillock
where the soma and axon connect
myelin sheath
insulating material with interruptions known as nodes of ranvier
glial cell
these cells provide nutrients, oxygen, insulation and protection to the axons and cover some in myelin sheath
resting potential
1st stage: polarized cell-70 millivolts-membrane potential- diff in voltage- slight neg electrical charge stored inside the neurons cell membrane- waiting to be a nerve impulse = the membrane is semipermeable- Maintains the sodium potassium pump
polarized
difference btwn electrical charge inside and outside the cell inside the membrane has a sightly neg charge outside slight pos
sodium potassium pump
to maintain resting potential the cell membrane has to actively pump the pos charged sodium ions back outside and keep the potassium ions inside
depolarization
2nd stage: ifiring of the neuron= stimulus sig enough to cause membrane potential to increase to -50mv = moves voltage 2 threshold
action potential spike
3rd stage: after reaching the threshold the membrane allows sodium in - rush of positive ions= the cell will then repolarize once absolute refractory period begins
hyperpolarization
step 4: relative refractory period begins, to many neg ions get in the cell
all or nothing law
States that if the threshold is reached an impulse is carried, but if the threshold is not reached no impulse is carried
excitatory postsynaptic potential (ESPS)
Positive charges from outside are allowed into the cell during depolarization- increase chance cell fires
inhibitory postsynapptic potential (IPSP)
the few positive charges in the cell body are let out and the cell becomes hyperpolarized - decrease change of firing
acetylcholine
released @ neuromusclar junction 2 cause the contraction of skeletal muscles -PNS- transmit nerve impulses to muscles- alzheimers
catecholamines
Monoamines: epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine= all play important role in the experience of emotions
epinephrine
neurotransmitter fight or flight responses
norepinephrine
control alertness/wakefulness, implicated in mood disorders such as depression and mania
dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.
serotonin
neurotransmitter that regulates mood eating sleeping and arousal. play a role in mania and depression - SSRI's for depression
GABA
inhibitory transmitter - brain stabilizer= associated w/anxiety disorder
Glutamate
excititory transmitter
sedative hypnotic drugs
benzodiazepines & barbiturates: depressants affect GABA, alcohol does this as well
benzodiazepines
Affects GABA- minor tranquilizer - reduces anxiety
barbiturates
Affects GABA- sedative
behavioural stimulants
amphetimines, tricyclics &MAO inhibitor, methylphenidate :increase behaviour activity
amphetamines
behavioural stimulant, speed up the CNS - stimulate - norepinephrine, dopamine = for narcolepsy
antidepressants
behavioural stimulants= tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO) - elevate mood, increase overall activity level and appetite and improve sleep
tricyclic antidepressant
MAO Inhibitor- behavioural stimulant- norepinephrine & serotonin, MAO inhibitors increase the supply of norepinephrine and serotonin - INHIBIT THE ACTION OF MAO which deactivates those neurotransmitters
methylphenidate
ritalin- used to treat ADD, increases alertness and decreases motor activity in hyper active children
chlorpromazine
thorazine; antipsychotic- reduces agitation, delusions, hallucinations - block dopamine receptor sites
haloperidol
antipsychotic- reduces agitation, delusions, hallucinations - block dopamine receptor sites
lithium
antipsychotic- effective mood stabilizer- unknown what it affects - used for bipolar
aphasia
impairment of language functions- broca, wernickes
amnesia
impairment of mem functions- anterograde-retrograde
agnosia
impairment in perceptual recognition of objects- visual and tactile
apraxia
impairment of skilled motor movements
beta waves
AWAKE: person is awake and alert - fast EEG
alpha waves
AWAKE: person is awake but relaxed w/ eyes closed - slow EEG
theta waves 1
STAGE 1: person is drifting from wakefulness 2 sleep - muscles are still active and may twitch; hallucinations may occur
Theta waves 2
STAGE 2: person is lightly sleeping - EEG shows sleep spindles and K complexes
delta waves 1
STAGE 3: person is more deeply asleep, progressively slower EEG activity and steeper sleep spindles
delta waves 2
STAGE 4: person is in deepest sleep= slowest EEG activity and steepest sleep spindles - relaxed muscle tone, decreased respiration and heart rates
REM sleep
paradoxical sleep fast but irregular EEG activity similar to alpha waves relaxed muscle tone- associated with dreaming
james lange theory
argued that we recognize emotions based on how our bodys react
cannon bard theory
argues that emotions reflect physiological arousal of the ANS and specific neural circuits in the brain
schachter singer theory
argued that unspecified physiological arousal will be labeled as diff emotions depending on mental responses 2 environmental stimuli