outcomes that matter
Clinically relevant outcomes that provide direct measures of disease. It encompasses more than clinical data, including other outcomes that patients and providers care about, such as the patient's ability to function or the cost of care. Outcomes that mat
outlier
Is an extreme value. It can, by itself, alter the determination of significance. It might also indicate an error has been made. In a box-and-whisker plot, it is a value that falls above or below the whiskers.
p-value
The probability that the test statistic represents normal variation. A p-value is reported with each test statistic. The test statistic p-value is compared to the level of alpha selected for the study. If the test statistic is less than alpha (or alpha-ha
paired-samples t-test
Also known as the dependent-samples t-test, this parametric statistical test is used to determine if a significant difference exists between the means of two dependent (or related) measures that have a similar sample size and degree of variation.
parameter
A descriptive measure of a population, such as the number of people in the population, the mean, or the standard deviation. In most cases, a parameter cannot be known or measured and a sample must be drawn. The symbols used to represent parameters differ
parametric statistics
Statistical procedures designed to be used with data that meet the assumption of normality and are quantitative.
patient-centered health care
A model for health care in which the needs, preferences, goals, capabilities, and resources of the patient or population are at the center of healthcare decisions. Focuses on the healthcare provider as the expert and authority in healthcare decisions. The
Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient
Symbolized by a lowercase r. A test for relationship between two variables that are interval or ratio data types. A rule of thumb employed with correlation tests is that an r of at least 0.755 is considered a strong positive association (whereas -0.755 wo
peer-reviewed publications
Publications that are reviewed by experts in the discipline who judge whether articles are worthy of publication.
peer reviewer
In a naturalistic (qualitative) study, serves as an external analyst to critique the interpretations of the researchers. This procedure helps establish the credibility of the study.
period prevalent
A health issue that is specific to an intermediate period of time (months or up to a few years).
per-protocol analysis
A procedure in which the data analyzed from a study include only those subjects who completed the study, dropping data from subjects who did not complete. It is generally considered less rigorous than intent-to-treat analysis because per-protocol analysis
persistent observation
Researchers being in the field for an extended period of time to establish rapport and gain the trust of participants so that they feel comfortable disclosing their experiences during data collection.
pertinent negatives
Diagnostic or assessment findings that are pertinent to other diagnoses and are negative for a particular diagnosis. Pertinent negatives help rule out items in the differential.
Phase I clinical trial
According to the FCA: a clinical trial in which researchers test an experimental drug or treatment in a small group of people (20-80) for the first time to evaluate its safety, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
Phase II clinical trial
According to the FCA: a clinical trial in which the experimental study drug or treatment is given to a larger group of people (100-300) to see if it is effective and to further evaluate its safety.
Phase III clinical trial
According to the FCA: a clinical trial in which the experimental study drug or treatment is given to large groups of people (1,000-3,000) to confirm its effectiveness, monitor side effects, compare it to commonly used treatments, and collect information t
Phase IV clinical trial
According to the FCA: a postmarketing clinical trial that delineates additional information, including the drug's risks, benefits, and optimal use.
phenomenology
A study of the lived experiences of several individuals centered on a single phenomenon. A phenomenology is similar to a biography in its procedures, differing primarily in terms of the examination of a group as opposed to an individual.
phenomenon
A lived experience that is observable or unobservable. Phenomena experienced by patients and/or observed by clinicians become the focus of healthcare research. For example, this can include the experience of living with HIV or weight gain as a consequence
PICO
An acronym that stands for Patient or Problem, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome. The acronym was created to guide physicians and medical students in the development of focused clinical questions.
pie chart
A circular graph which includes 100% of the observations in a sample. The chart divides up a sample into proportions.
planning phase of patient care
During this phase of patient care, the patient shares in the decision-making process when the clinician presents his or her findings during the case presentation and gains informed consent to proceed with care. A care plan is collaboratively developed wit
POEM
An abbreviation that stands for Patient Oriented Evidence that Matters. POEMs are high-level information sources, usually published in print journals, online journals, or online point-of-care resources. POEMs are focused on a single clinical question and
point estimate
A single number such as a sample mean or incidence rate.
point-of-care products (or resources)
Health information search tools that contain synthesized evidence useful to the practitioner while treating the patient. A few examples include UpToDate, MD Consult, Essential Evidence Plus, ACP-PIER, DynaMed, Nursing Reference Center, Rehabilitation Refe
point prevalent
A health issue that is specific to a short period of time, such as a day or a week.
point-source outbreak
When one source of infection results in a very rapid increase in the number of cases, such as in the cholera epidemic during John Snow's time in London.
population attributable risk (PAR)
The proportion of disease cases among the population, both exposed and not exposed. It represents the reduction in incidence of a disease in the population if the exposure were eliminated. The PAR is calculated by subtracting the incidence in the unexpose
population attributable risk percent (PAR%)
The percent of the incidence of a disease in the population (exposed + unexposed) that is due to exposure. It is the percent reduction in incidence of disease in the population if the exposure were eliminated. Divide the PAR by the incidence in the total
positive likelihood ratio (PLR)
The relative likelihood of having the disease if the patient has a positive test result. Symbolized by +LR.
positive predictive value (PPV)
The likelihood someone with a positive test result will actually have the disease. It is expressed as a proportion. PPV is the percentage of those with a positive test result who actually have the disease. In a 2 ? 2 table the formula for PPV is a/(a + b)
positivistic research
Also referred to as quantitative research. It is a paradigm through which knowledge is viewed as stemming from the external reality of individuals or groups. Positivistic studies focus on objective questions, looking for causal relationships to make predi
power calculation
A statistical procedure to determine the probability that the effect of interest will be observed when it occurs. A power level of 0.8 is generally accepted as a sufficient level of power. Power is utilized in a sample size calculation in order to determi
PPAARE
An acronym that stands for Problem, Patient or Population, Action, Alternative Action, Result, Evidence. The acronym is used to guide the development of focused questions.
practice guideline
A document related to a specific disease or disorder put together by an expert working group with recommendations for diagnosis and treatment. Some practice guidelines employ the procedures of a systematic review and represent the best available evidence.
preclinical trials
As defined by the National Institutes of Health, studies that involve testing of experimental drugs in test tubes or in animals. It includes testing that occurs before human trials are permitted.
precontemplation phase of change
In the transtheoretical model of change, at this stage the patient is not willing or ready to change behavior within the next 6 months.
predictor variable
Also referred to as an independent variable, which is a variable that can affect a response variable, such as sex or age being a predictor of heart disease.
preparation phase of change
In the transtheoretical model of change, at this stage the patient is preparing for the change within the next month and is partially engaged in changing.
pre/post study
A trial in which the same group serves as both the control and intervention group. Subjects receive the control intervention (no treatment, placebo, or usual care) for a period of time and then receive the experimental treatment. This is also referred to
prevalence
The proportion of a population with a given disease at a single point in time.
primary literature
Original sources of information that have not been filtered through interpretation, such as an historical document, description of a laboratory experiment, an eye-witness account (e.g., case study), or the proposal of an original idea or other original wo
primary outcome measures
End points that are intended to be directly impacted by the intervention.
primary prevention
Strategies that aim to reduce the incidence of disease by personal and communal efforts, such as decreasing environmental risks, enhancing nutritional status, immunizing against communicable diseases, or improving water supplies. It is a core task of publ
prognosis
The predicted outcome of a disease or disorder, usually expressed in terms of length of time until a specific outcome, such as full recovery, limited recovery, or mortality.
prolonged engagement
Researchers being immersed in data collection long enough to provide depth to the data collected on the phenomenon.
proof-of-concept experiment
A single-group study in which the plausibility of an underlying principle is tested.
propagated epidemic
When an infectious agent infects one person, who then transmits the disease to another person.
proportion
A descriptive statistic showing the percentage of a value in terms of the whole. Proportions are also often referred to as relative frequency.
prospective EBP
Seeking information in advance, rather than only in response to patient encounters. Developing your fund of knowledge and being able to draw on that knowledge in clinical situations. Making a habit of searching for the latest developments in your areas of
prospective research
Studies that involve the formulation of a hypothesis, followed by the collection of data and subsequent analysis of findings. Data are collected over a defined period of sufficient duration to draw reliable inferences about a population based on the sampl
protective factor
An exposure or attribute that is associated with a decreased risk of disease; the risk ratio (RR) is less than 1.0.
PSA test
Prostate specific antigen test. It is used as a diagnostic tool for prostate cancer. The test is controversial due to its poor sensitivity.
psychomotor objectives
Outcomes that focus on changing a patient's motor skills.
publication bias
When the determination about whether to publish a study is based on factors other than the quality of the research and the relevance of its findings.
PubMed
PubMed is an online database administered by the National Library of Medicine. It can be used to search millions of publications in biomedical literature, life science journals, and online books. PubMed is an excellent tool for locating primary biomedical
PubMed Health
A website maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information for consumers to access summaries on clinical effectiveness research published in systematic reviews.
purpose statement
A statement in a publication that explains the reason the study was undertaken.
purposive sampling
Typically used in qualitative research studies, such as grounded theory, phenomenology, ethnography, or biography. A purposive sampling procedure is often necessary when there are few cases of a specific problem, such as with a rare diagnosis or when rese
qualitative data
In positivistic research, quantitative data are values that are categorical, nominal, or ordinal scales. For statistical analysis, qualitative data points are counted and, thereby, converted to numerical values. Nonparametric statistics apply to qualitati
qualitative research
Also known as naturalistic research. It is a paradigm of research focused on describing phenomena as experienced by those who live them. There are many different methods and products of qualitative research.
quantitative data
In positivistic research, quantitative data are values that are interval or ratio scales. In order to utilize parametric statistical strategies, data must (at a minimum) be quantitative in type and satisfy other assumptions associated with the statistical
quantitative research
Quantitative research is also known as positivistic research. Quantitative research utilizes numerical data to measure and explain observable phenomena. There are many quantitative research methods.
quartile
The division of the distribution into four equal parts.
quasi-experimental research
Studies in which researchers cannot randomly select subjects or randomly assign subjects to treatment and control groups; however, researchers are able to control some independent variables.
quaternary prevention
Strategies that aim to identify patients at risk of overdiagnosis or over-medication and that protect them from excessive medical intervention.
Quick Response (QR) codes
Bar codes that can be scanned with a smartphone that lead to websites, online videos, telephone numbers, maps, and other health information. QR Codes can be read by smartphones using a free application that can be downloaded to a smartphone.
r
The correlation coefficient.
r2
The correlation coefficient of determination.
random sampling
A process through which every member of a population has equal probability of being selected for a study. Also known as probability sampling.
randomization
A procedure for assigning subjects to intervention groups (placebo group, control group, experimental group, etc.) that ensures that every subject has an equal chance of being assigned to any group.
randomized control trial (RCT)
A study in which the allocation of patients to treatment or control groups is random and concealed. At least one control group must be utilized. Preferably patients as well as providers are not informed (blinded) regarding which intervention that patients
range
The difference between the highest and lowest values in an ordered data set.
ratio data
Measurable observations that have a natural order and equivalence. Each observation is an equivalent distance from the next (e.g., the distance from 2 to 3 is equal to the distance from 136 to 137). There is also a true zero point. For example, height is
recall bias
A flaw in research data caused by poor recall among research subjects. When patients with an outcome are asked to remember exposures or behaviors in their past, they are much more likely to respond positively than patients who do not have the outcome.
receiver operating characteristic (ROC)
A plot that compares the true positive rate to the false positive rate. The ROC curve is a visual representation of the area under the curve (AUC) statistic. The greater the true positive rate compared to the false positive rate the stronger the diagnosti
refereed publications
Publications that are not only peer-reviewed but also come from journals that include primary research, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses.
reference standard test
The current standard or the gold standard. It is the test that is normally used or the test that has been shown to be the most accurate.
reflexivity
A practice of critical self-reflection through which researchers, especially naturalistic (qualitative) researchers, become conscious of how their views and perspectives might influence their inquiry.
regression analysis
Test that focuses on relationships among several variables that best explain a specific response. A regression analysis determines the line that best fits within a set of coordinates. It is the line that comes the closest to all of the dots on a scatter d
relationships
In statistics, relationships are mathematical associations between variables, usually predictor and response variables.
relative risk (RR)
Also referred to as the risk ratio. It is the event rate among those exposed to a factor divided by the event rate among those not exposed to the same factor. The formula for RR is EER/CER. See also exposed event rate (EER); control event rate (CER).
relative risk increase (RRI)
Similar to relative risk reduction (RRR), but representing a higher event rate among the exposed group than the control group; RRI = (EER - CER)/EER.
relative risk reduction (RRR)
An extrapolation from relative risk. RRR is the difference in event rates between the exposed and unexposed groups expressed as a proportion of the event rate in the unexposed group; RRR = (CER - EER)/CER.
reliability
The consistency, or reproducibility, of the manner in which the data were collected.
repeated measures tests
Pre/post, within-subject, self-controlled, and correlated group designs are all types of repeated measures tests. When a test for differences is used to compare variables that are from different groups that do not influence one another, the measures are s
representativeness
In a quantitative study, the degree to which subjects in the sample match the population they represent. The sample should match the population in terms of characteristics such as the distribution of people by sex, age, race/ethnicity, severity of disease
response variable
Also referred to as a dependent variable, a response variable is affected by a predictor (i.e., independent) variable. For example, mortality from heart disease is a response variable that is affected by age, sex, smoking, or body mass.
retrospective EBP
Looking up information subsequent to a clinical encounter.
retrospective research
Retrospective research examines an outcome or exposure that has already occurred and utilizes numerical data to test for relationships between variables, or differences between groups, which can be associated with the phenomenon.
right skew
A visual description for a non-normal data set in which values trail off to the right side of the chart, creating a 'tail' on that side.
risk
The probability or chance that an individual will develop a disease or condition over a specified period of time.
risk factor
An exposure or attribute that is associated with but not the cause of a given outcome of interest.
s
The symbol for the standard deviation in a sample.
sample size
The number of subjects who enter into a study.
sample size calculation
A statistical procedure that should be calculated prior to the start of a study that tells researchers how many subjects are needed in order to accurately answer the research question based on the type of data to be collected, the level of Type I error ri
sampling bias
Limitation(s) to the process of selecting and recruiting subjects in a study that results in the study sample not being representative of the population from which it is drawn and is intended to represent.
sampling fraction
The proportion that a sample is of the population it represents. For example, if a population was known to have 100,000 people and the sample drawn for the research is 425 people, the sampling fraction would be 0.425%. The researchers would report that th
sampling frame
The source from which the subjects are drawn, usually a list of some kind that has been deemed to include a sufficient number of potential subjects that can represent the population and allow for a representative, random sample to be drawn.
sampling strategy
A procedure or set of procedures for identifying and recruiting subjects.
saturation
The point at which participants are not providing new data to contribute to the analysis and the analysis is well defined and demonstrates variation. This concept is generally applied to naturalistic (qualitative) research.
scatter plot
A graph that shows relationships (also known as associations or correlations) between variables (similar to a line graph). The closer the dots are in a scatter plot to forming a line, the stronger their association.
scientific method
The process of formulating a hypothesis, performing objective experiments, and engaging in sound reasoning supported by the collected data.
screening
Procedures used to identify early signs and symptoms of a disease or health problem associated with a population at risk for a specific disease or event.
secondary literature
A summary, interpretation, or evaluation of primary literature, such as a traditional literature review. Practice guidelines and position papers might also fall in this category depending on the sources used.
secondary outcome measures
Additional end points (beyond primary outcome measures) that are evaluated but are not the specific focus of the intervention.
secondary prevention
Strategies that aim to reduce the prevalence of disease by shortening the duration of disease.
selection bias
A type of sampling bias in which there is a systematic procedural error in the selection of subjects or when a nonrandom (nonprobability) sample is utilized.
self-management
The process of monitoring an existing disease, such as taking medications and other interventions, to maintain or improve a disease or condition and dealing with the emotions that accompany the illness.
self-reporting bias
A type of measurement error in which subjects inaccurately report data about themselves.
sensitivity
The ability of the test to be positive given the person tested has the disease/problem. Sensitivity is expressed as a proportion. It is the percentage of those who are known to have the disease/problem who test positive. Also known as the proportion of tr
side effects
Unintended symptoms from treatment, prevention, diagnostic, or screening procedures.
? (sigma)
The standard deviation of a population.
simple random sample
A form of probability sampling (which means each individual has a known probability of being selected) that allows every member of the population to have an equal chance of being selected for the study.
snowball sampling
A type of nonprobability sampling used in quantitative research when the researchers are interested in studying a population that is difficult to identify, such as gang members, IV drug users, or illegal aliens, to name a few. Also known as network sampli
social cognitive theory
A theory of behavior that proposes behavioral factors, cognitive factors (knowledge, expectations, and attitudes), and environmental factors (including social norms and interaction with other individuals) influence human behavior.
specificity
The ability of the test to be negative given the person does not have the disease/problem. Specificity is expressed as a proportion. It is the percentage of those who are known not to have the disease/condition who test negative. Also known as the proport
standard deviation
A measure of variability. It is the square root of the variance (average distance of all observations in a data set from the mean) of the data set.
statistics
The theory, study, and practice of quantitatively summarizing data. There are two general categories of statistics: descriptive and inferential.
stratified random sample
A procedure in which the sampling frame is divided into strata (groupings) and a random sample is drawn from each stratum.
studies of harm
Observational, retrospective studies with the purpose of identifying harmful exposures (e.g., case-control studies) as well as observational, prospective studies with the purpose of identifying harmful exposures (e.g., cohort studies, systematic reviews,
studies of prevention
Interventional, prospective studies with the purpose of preventing patients from developing a condition (e.g., case studies, case series, control trials, randomized control trials, cohort studies) as well as observational, prospective studies with the pur
studies of treatment
Interventional, prospective studies with the purpose of treating a diagnosed condition (e.g., case studies, case series, control trials, randomized control trials, cohort studies) as well as observational, prospective studies with the purpose of determini
subjective data
The patient's perceptions.
surrogate outcomes
An indirect outcome (such as a physiological measure) that reflects another type of outcome, usually an outcome that matters. Surrogates are selected based on the association of a physiological or biological measure with another known clinical end point (
surveillance
The ongoing, systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of health data.
survival curve
A survival curve is a graph used to show the length of time until a bad event, such as death. It can have one line or multiple lines. The x-axis shows the length of time until the bad event, and the y-axis shows the percentage of the group or groups.
syndemic
When two or more afflictions, interacting synergistically, contribute to excess burden of disease in a population.
systematic review
A research procedure in which all prior positivistic studies on a given topic are brought together and analyzed collectively.
t-test
Also known as the Student's t-test or independent-samples t-test, this parametric statistical test is used to determine if a significant difference exists between the means of two independent groups that have a similar sample size and degree of variation.
teach-back method
A strategy used during the implementation phase of care in which patients are asked to teach the procedure back to the practitioner by demonstrating the use of equipment or explaining medication dosing.
temporal style
The time-orientation of research: retrospective, cross-sectional, or prospective.
tertiary literature
Distilled collections of primary and secondary sources, such as a textbooks, dictionaries, or encyclopedias.
tertiary prevention
Strategies that aim to soften the impact of long-term disease and disability by eliminating or reducing impairment, disability, and handicap; reducing suffering; and maximizing potential years or useful life. It is mainly a task of rehabilitation.
test-retest method
A procedure for testing the reliability of an instrument in which the instrument is administered to a small group of participants at one time and then the same instrument is administered a short time later (such as one week). The level of agreement betwee
tests for differences
Comparison of a statistic, such as a mean or a proportion, between two or more groups.
tests for relationships
Used to determine if variables change in relationship to other variables (e.g., arthritis incidence increases with age or heart disease increases with incidence of diabetes). A positive relationship exists when an increase in one variable is associated wi
test statistic
The value produced by a statistical test.
thalidomide
A sedative hypnotic drug originally used as a treatment for morning sickness and to help pregnant women sleep. However, it causes phocomelia (seal limb) in infants. As such, it was never approved in the United States for pregnant women. It is now approved
theoretical sampling
A procedure for selecting participants in a naturalistic (qualitative) study that ensures participants can provide data to inform the research question.
therapeutics
According to the U.S. Library of Medicine: procedures concerned with the remedial treatment or prevention of diseases.
time-to-event curve
Another name for a survival curve. It indicates that a survival curve can be used to measure time until any type of event, not just a bad event.
transferability
A characteristic of a naturalistic (qualitative) study that represents the degree to which the findings of the study are viewed as applicable to other situations. Transferability is usually established by the reader of a study and cannot be ascertained by
transformation of data
A procedure that converts data points into another form that has a normal distribution (e.g., logarithmic transformation).
translational critical thinking
An application of critical thinking in which the theoretical skills and concepts of critical thinking are enacted to solve real-world, ill-structured problems. Translational critical thinking requires self-awareness, intellectual humility, self-direction,
triangulation
Procedures utilized to compare findings via different data sources. This concept is generally applied to naturalistic (qualitative) studies.
triple-blind randomized control trial
A randomized control trial in which the allocation of subjects to treatment and control groups not only is concealed from the subjects and the clinicians but also from the researchers who analyze the data.
truncated trial
A trial (study) that ends early. Usually this happens for one of two reasons: (1) the results indicate an unexpected adverse outcome and the study is stopped for safety purposes or (2)�the results indicate a strongly positive outcome, making it unnecessar
Tx
A clinical abbreviation that stands for treatment.
unimodal
A data set with one mode (a single value that occurs most frequently). Unimodality is one of the required characteristics for a distribution to be considered normal.
USPSTF (U.S. Preventive Services Task Force)
An agency within AHRQ. According to the USPSTF, it is an independent group of national experts in prevention and evidence-based medicine that work to improve the health of all Americans by making evidence-based recommendations about clinical preventive se
validity
The accuracy of measurements. It is the degree to which an instrument measures what is it supposed to measure.
variability
The dispersion of data points within a set.
variance
The average distance of all observations from the mean in a normally shaped distribution (data set).
visual analog scale (VAS)
A graphic used to assess pain severity and duration in patients or experimental animals.
web of causation
A theory that posits that there is no singular reason for the occurrence of a disease. Rather a compendium of factors predisposes an individual to meet criteria for a particular case definition.
WHO (World Health Organization)
The coordinating authority for health within the United Nations system.
WOMAC Scale
Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis scale used to assess pain, stiffness, and physical function in hip or knee osteoarthritis.
x
Referred to as x-bar. The symbol used to designate the mean of a sample.