information processing
A particular approach to theorizing in which complex mental events, such as learning, remembering, and deciding, are understood as being built up out of a large number of discrete steps. These steps occur one by one, with each providing as its "output" th
modal model
A nickname for a specific conception of the "architecture" of memory. In this model, working memory serves both as the storage site for material now being contemplated and as the "loading platform" for long-term memory. Information can reach working memor
long-term memory (LTM)
The storage system in which we hold all of our knowledge and all of our memories. Long-term memory contains memories that are not currently activated; those that are activated are represented in working memory. (page 166)
free recall
A method of assessing memory. The person being tested is asked to come up with as many items as possible from a particular source (such as "the list you heard earlier" or "things you saw yesterday"), in any sequence. (page 167)
primacy effect
An often-observed advantage in remembering the early-presented materials within a sequence of materials. This advantage is generally attributed to the fact that you can focus attention on these items, simply because, at the beginning of a sequence, you ar
recency effect
The tendency to remember materials that occur late in a series. If the series was just presented, the recency effect can be attributed to the fact that these late-arriving items are still in working memory (simply because nothing else has arrived after th
serial position
A data pattern summarizing the relationship between some performance measure (often, likelihood of recall) and the order in which the test materials were presented. In memory studies, the serial position curve tends to be U-shaped, with people best able t
memory rehearsal
Any mental activity that has the effect of maintaining information in working memory. Two types of rehearsal are often distinguished: maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal. (page 168)
digit-span task
A task often used for measuring working memory's storage capacity. Research participants are read a series of digits (e.g., "8 3 4") and must immediately repeat them back. If they do this successfully, they are given a slightly longer list (e.g., "9 2 4 0
7 plus-or-minus 2
A number often offered as an estimate of the holding capacity of working memory. (page 173)
chunk
The hypothetical storage unit in working memory; it is estimated that working memory can hold 7 plus-or-minus 2 chunks. An unspecified quantity of information can be contained within each chunk, since the content of each chunk depends on how the memorizer
operation span
A measure of working memory's capacity. This measure turns out to be predictive of performance in many other tasks, presumably because these tasks all rely on working memory. This measure is also the modern replacement for the (less useful) measure obtain
maintenance rehearsal
A rote, mechanical process in which items are continually cycled through working memory, merely by being repeated over and over. Also called "item-specific rehearsal," and often contrasted with elaborative rehearsal. (page 178)
relational rehearsal
A form of mental processing in which you think about the relations, or connections, among ideas. The connections created (or strengthened) in this way will later guide memory search. (page 179)
elaborative rehearsal
A way of engaging materials to be remembered, such that you pay attention to what the materials mean and how they are related to each other, or to other things in the surroundings, or to other things you already know. Often contrasted with maintenance reh
rehearsal loop
See articulatory rehearsal loop. (page 179)
intentional learning
The acquisition of memories in a setting in which people know that their memory for the information will be tested later. Often contrasted with incidental learning. (page 182)
incidental learning
Learning that takes place in the absence of any intention to learn and, correspondingly, in the absence of any expectation of a subsequent memory test. Often contrasted with intentional learning. (page 182)
shallow processing
A mode of thinking about material in which you pay attention only to appearances and other superficial aspects of the material; shallow processing typically leads to poor memory retention. Often contrasted with deep processing. (page 182)
deep processing
A mode of thinking in which you pay attention to the meaning and implications of the material; deep processing typically leads to excellent memory retention. Often contrasted with shallow processing. (page 182)
level of processing
An assessment of how "deeply" newly learned materials are engaged; shallow processing involves thinking only about the material's superficial traits; deep processing involves thinking about what the material means. Deep processing is typically associated
retrieval path
A connection (or series of connections) that can lead to a sought-after memory in long-term storage. (page 187)
mnemonic strategy
A technique designed to improve memory accuracy and to make learning easier; in general, mnemonic strategies seek in one fashion or another to help memory by imposing an organization on the materials to be learned. (page 188)
peg-word systems
A type of mnemonic strategy using words or locations as "pegs" on which to "hang" the materials to be remembered. (page 189)