Learning
relatively permanent* change in behavior;
can help maintain, increase or decrease stuttering
Why is learning relatively permanent?
Learning is described as such because you can unlearn things
Types of Learning
classical conditioning or Pavlovian Conditioning;
Operant Conditioning
Conditioning
another word for learning;
Starkweather (1987) believed that although neurophysiological sources played a role in onset of stuttering, it was ______________ that played a role in stuttering development
Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a response, so that the neutral stimulus eventually elicits the response;
accounts for more tense repetitions
stimulus
something that we do
unconditioned stimulus
unlearned stimulus;
stimulus that elicits a response;
e.g. sight/smell of food generally elicits salivation
Unconditioned response
the response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus;
generally a reflexive, autonomic, automatic response;
generally physiological, instinctual
neutral stimulus
on its own, it does not elicit any response;
paired with the UCS, generally occurring before the UCS;
e.g. a bell being rung before the presentation of food an number of times to create an association between the neutral stimulus and the UCS
Conditioned stimulus
when a sufficient association is created between the NS and the UCS, the NS alone can now cause a conditioned response;
depending on the strength of the UCR and the UCS, the time to associate the neutral stimulus so it can become this can require from 1 t
Conditioned response
a response caused by a conditioned stimulus;
may not be exactly the same as the UCR elicited as researchers found a different type of saliva between CR and UCR
Real life examples of classical conditioning
Sadness from a bad relationship: UCS;
Crying: UCR;
listening to a song: NS;
listening to a song while thinking about the bad relationship leads to song, CS, being associated with crying, CR;
Conditioning of Fear
e.g. Little Albert;
White rabbit was neutral stimulus;
loud noise-UCS lead to fear/crying-UCR;
introduce white rabbit-NS followed by UCS which lead to fear/crying;
with repeated pairings, white rabbit becomes the CS;
Every time white rabbit showed, albert
Turning Easy Repetitions into Stuttering
an example of stuttering and classical conditioning;
assume that UCS, e.g. personal/environmental facts such as parents looking at you in horror, will lead to the UCR of speech tension and negative feelings;
easy repetitions in the neutral stimulus;
child
Fear of Making Phone Calls
an example of stuttering and classical conditioning;
assume that stuttering/thought of stuttering is UCS which leads to speech tension/negative feelings or UCR;
assume that making a phone call is the neutral stimulus;
when pws gets ready to make a phone c
Generalization
learning is applied to similar things to which it was associated, e.g. Little Albert's feelings about furry things
Discrimination
learning isn't applied to similar things, but only responds to original association, e.g. only fear landlines but not cellphone
extinction
gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of conditioned response;
need to repeatedly present conditioned stimulus but without pairing it with unconditioned stimulus, e.g. Albert would have been presented the rat without the noise;
Albert was not decon
Spontaneous Recovery
when a previously extinguished conditioned response reappears after a period of no training
Operant Conditioning
also known as instrumental conditioning; rewarding and punishing;
the frequency at which a behavior occurs is related to the type of consequence that follows;
association is made between the behavior and the consequence that follows;
if reward a behavior,
Secondary Behaviors and Operant Conditioning
If PWS associates good feelings with a secondary behavior, e.g. eye blinks stops stuttering, then this secondary behavior is rewarded and more likely to occur again
Types of operant conditioning
positive and negative reinforcement;
positive and negative punishment
What do you increase behavior with?
You do this with reinforcement
What do you decrease behavior with?
You do this with punishment
Presence/Giving of Stimulus
Positive Reinforcement/Punishment
Absence/Removal of Stimulus/Take away
negative reinforcement/punishment
Positive Reinforcement
something rewarding is given following the behavior;
e.g. If you use your "easy speech" when you answer the question, you will get a sticker.
Negative Reinforcement
an aversive stimulus is removed following the behavior; a bad situation is removed or terminated;
e.g., If you use your "easy speech," I'll turn off the loud noise"
includes escape and avoidance behaviors;
e.g., When I blink, my stuttering stops;
this is
Positive Punishment
an unrewarding stimulus follows the behavior;
e.g., scolding the child every time he/she gets up off the chair
Negative Punishment
a rewarding stimulus is removed following the behavior;
every time the child gets out of the chair, you take away a prize previously given
Which form of reinforcement/punishment is better for increasing behavior?
Positive reinforcement is better for increasing behavior;
you could use mild punishment if done with good humor
Where is Operant conditioning seen?
This is seen in the Lidcombe program, cancellations, pull-outs, and prep sets
Lidcombe Program 5:1 Reward/Punishment
uses both reward and mild punishment, but uses more rewards than punishments
cancellations
mild positive punishment;
finish stutter and say again fluently
pull-outs
negative reinforcement;
while stuttering, "pull out" of the event using tools such as decreased tension;
escape
prep set
positive reinforcement;
before stuttering occurs, use tools to avoid stuttering;
how is this positive reinforcement if avoidance behaviors are negative?
Avoidance Behavior
PWS _________ certain behaviors,
such as certain speaking situations, words they know they'll stutter on/substitutions, or use extra sounds, words or phrases to get a running start on a difficult word;
often learned first as escape behaviors, e.g. eye bli
Avoidance Conditioning
a type of Operant Conditioning;
reason why secondary behaviors keep being reinforced;
learning occurs when a person uses a behavior to try to prevent an unpleasant occurrence by doing something
Amygdala
part of the brain that helps you learn fear and anxiety; plays a role in expressing negative emotions;
Emotions and conditioning
if this is intensely felt or in a negative direction, it will condition quicker, e.g. touching a hot stove
Extinction
the weakening of a conditioned response over time;
can apply to both operant and classical conditioning
Extinction of Classical Conditioning
present the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus for a certain amount of time and the conditioned response will lessen
Extinction of Operant Conditioning
occurs when there is no more reinforcement
Counter-conditioning
similar to extinction, but replace the unwanted response with a stronger wanted response, e.g. replacing Albert's fear with positive feelings;
used in systematic desensitization therapy
Systematic Desensitization Therapy
positive reward given for taking small, incremental steps to approach the feared stimulus; 3 steps;
used with phobias, e.g. fear of flying or snakes, and stuttering, e.g. fear of talking on the phone
3 Steps to Systematic Desensitization
First, learn a relaxation strategy because you need to be in a good frame of mind;
Second, construct a "fear" hierarchy such as looking at picture of stimulus, approach stimulus, interacting with the stimulus;
Third, work through the fear hierarchy by sta