Lecture 5

Learning

relatively permanent* change in behavior;
can help maintain, increase or decrease stuttering

Why is learning relatively permanent?

Learning is described as such because you can unlearn things

Types of Learning

classical conditioning or Pavlovian Conditioning;
Operant Conditioning

Conditioning

another word for learning;
Starkweather (1987) believed that although neurophysiological sources played a role in onset of stuttering, it was ______________ that played a role in stuttering development

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a response, so that the neutral stimulus eventually elicits the response;
accounts for more tense repetitions

stimulus

something that we do

unconditioned stimulus

unlearned stimulus;
stimulus that elicits a response;
e.g. sight/smell of food generally elicits salivation

Unconditioned response

the response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus;
generally a reflexive, autonomic, automatic response;
generally physiological, instinctual

neutral stimulus

on its own, it does not elicit any response;
paired with the UCS, generally occurring before the UCS;
e.g. a bell being rung before the presentation of food an number of times to create an association between the neutral stimulus and the UCS

Conditioned stimulus

when a sufficient association is created between the NS and the UCS, the NS alone can now cause a conditioned response;
depending on the strength of the UCR and the UCS, the time to associate the neutral stimulus so it can become this can require from 1 t

Conditioned response

a response caused by a conditioned stimulus;
may not be exactly the same as the UCR elicited as researchers found a different type of saliva between CR and UCR

Real life examples of classical conditioning

Sadness from a bad relationship: UCS;
Crying: UCR;
listening to a song: NS;
listening to a song while thinking about the bad relationship leads to song, CS, being associated with crying, CR;

Conditioning of Fear

e.g. Little Albert;
White rabbit was neutral stimulus;
loud noise-UCS lead to fear/crying-UCR;
introduce white rabbit-NS followed by UCS which lead to fear/crying;
with repeated pairings, white rabbit becomes the CS;
Every time white rabbit showed, albert

Turning Easy Repetitions into Stuttering

an example of stuttering and classical conditioning;
assume that UCS, e.g. personal/environmental facts such as parents looking at you in horror, will lead to the UCR of speech tension and negative feelings;
easy repetitions in the neutral stimulus;
child

Fear of Making Phone Calls

an example of stuttering and classical conditioning;
assume that stuttering/thought of stuttering is UCS which leads to speech tension/negative feelings or UCR;
assume that making a phone call is the neutral stimulus;
when pws gets ready to make a phone c

Generalization

learning is applied to similar things to which it was associated, e.g. Little Albert's feelings about furry things

Discrimination

learning isn't applied to similar things, but only responds to original association, e.g. only fear landlines but not cellphone

extinction

gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of conditioned response;
need to repeatedly present conditioned stimulus but without pairing it with unconditioned stimulus, e.g. Albert would have been presented the rat without the noise;
Albert was not decon

Spontaneous Recovery

when a previously extinguished conditioned response reappears after a period of no training

Operant Conditioning

also known as instrumental conditioning; rewarding and punishing;
the frequency at which a behavior occurs is related to the type of consequence that follows;
association is made between the behavior and the consequence that follows;
if reward a behavior,

Secondary Behaviors and Operant Conditioning

If PWS associates good feelings with a secondary behavior, e.g. eye blinks stops stuttering, then this secondary behavior is rewarded and more likely to occur again

Types of operant conditioning

positive and negative reinforcement;
positive and negative punishment

What do you increase behavior with?

You do this with reinforcement

What do you decrease behavior with?

You do this with punishment

Presence/Giving of Stimulus

Positive Reinforcement/Punishment

Absence/Removal of Stimulus/Take away

negative reinforcement/punishment

Positive Reinforcement

something rewarding is given following the behavior;
e.g. If you use your "easy speech" when you answer the question, you will get a sticker.

Negative Reinforcement

an aversive stimulus is removed following the behavior; a bad situation is removed or terminated;
e.g., If you use your "easy speech," I'll turn off the loud noise"
includes escape and avoidance behaviors;
e.g., When I blink, my stuttering stops;
this is

Positive Punishment

an unrewarding stimulus follows the behavior;
e.g., scolding the child every time he/she gets up off the chair

Negative Punishment

a rewarding stimulus is removed following the behavior;
every time the child gets out of the chair, you take away a prize previously given

Which form of reinforcement/punishment is better for increasing behavior?

Positive reinforcement is better for increasing behavior;
you could use mild punishment if done with good humor

Where is Operant conditioning seen?

This is seen in the Lidcombe program, cancellations, pull-outs, and prep sets

Lidcombe Program 5:1 Reward/Punishment

uses both reward and mild punishment, but uses more rewards than punishments

cancellations

mild positive punishment;
finish stutter and say again fluently

pull-outs

negative reinforcement;
while stuttering, "pull out" of the event using tools such as decreased tension;
escape

prep set

positive reinforcement;
before stuttering occurs, use tools to avoid stuttering;
how is this positive reinforcement if avoidance behaviors are negative?

Avoidance Behavior

PWS _________ certain behaviors,
such as certain speaking situations, words they know they'll stutter on/substitutions, or use extra sounds, words or phrases to get a running start on a difficult word;
often learned first as escape behaviors, e.g. eye bli

Avoidance Conditioning

a type of Operant Conditioning;
reason why secondary behaviors keep being reinforced;
learning occurs when a person uses a behavior to try to prevent an unpleasant occurrence by doing something

Amygdala

part of the brain that helps you learn fear and anxiety; plays a role in expressing negative emotions;

Emotions and conditioning

if this is intensely felt or in a negative direction, it will condition quicker, e.g. touching a hot stove

Extinction

the weakening of a conditioned response over time;
can apply to both operant and classical conditioning

Extinction of Classical Conditioning

present the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus for a certain amount of time and the conditioned response will lessen

Extinction of Operant Conditioning

occurs when there is no more reinforcement

Counter-conditioning

similar to extinction, but replace the unwanted response with a stronger wanted response, e.g. replacing Albert's fear with positive feelings;
used in systematic desensitization therapy

Systematic Desensitization Therapy

positive reward given for taking small, incremental steps to approach the feared stimulus; 3 steps;
used with phobias, e.g. fear of flying or snakes, and stuttering, e.g. fear of talking on the phone

3 Steps to Systematic Desensitization

First, learn a relaxation strategy because you need to be in a good frame of mind;
Second, construct a "fear" hierarchy such as looking at picture of stimulus, approach stimulus, interacting with the stimulus;
Third, work through the fear hierarchy by sta