Reticular Activating System [RAS]
Responsible for the arousal and maintenance of consciousness
Osmosis
Difussion
Low to high
simple; high to low
Brainstem
Midbrain, Pons, Medulla Oblongata
Midbrain
Regulates autonomic functions like Breathing and heart rate
Visual and auditory stimuli to the thalamus
Monitors movement with basal nuclei
Pons
breathing, reflexes, sleep/wake cycle
Medulla Oblongata
connects spinal cord with pons
contains white matter involved in movement and sensation
homeostasis functions
Reticular Formation
pain transmission
mood regulation
sleep and arousal
Diencephalon
Hypothalamus and thalamus
regulates and coordinates SENSORY info and hormonal secretion from the hypothalamus
Thalamus
Main entrance into the cerebral cortex; routes sensory signals to the correct parts
Controls information entry into the cerebral corte and edits, sorts, and routes stimuli.
Enteric Nervous System
Responsible for digestive system
Works independently from CNS but can be regulated by sympathetic and parasympathetic system
Frontal Lobe
Cognition and motor movement
(concentration)
planing and executing movement and complex mental functions such as behavior, conscious, and personality
Parietal Lobe
Response to TOUCH, PAIN, BODY movements
sensory information and attention
Occipital Lobe
Vision
Temporal Lobe
Olfactory & Auditory information
Hearing and smell
Hearing, language, memory, emotions
Hippocampus
short term memory keeper
memory and learning
Broca's Area
Speech Production
Weirnecke's area
Understanding speech
Language Comprehension
Limbic System of Brain
regulate emotion, behavior and motivation, instinctual drives (pleasure, eating,thirst)
Foramen Magnum
hole; large opening in the base of the skull...connects brain to spinal cord
Melatonin
Key hormone in regulating sleep and wake cycles (or circadian rhythms)
Brain Stem
Relays information between body and higher brain regions
Corpus Collosum
2 brain hemispheres communicate
Cerebellum
COORDINATED MUSCULAR ACTIVITY
Balance: physical, emotional, cognitive, social
Processes sensory input, coordinated movement output and balance
Plannning and coordination
Cerebrum
Higher mental functions;
Cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, limbic system
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Resting and digesting
Responsible for maintaining your body and conserving energy for later
the "D division"; digestion, defecation and diuresis (urination)
Cerebrum
Higher mental functions
critical thinking, imagination
Sympathetic Nervous System
Fight or flight;
the ''E" division; ruling exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment
STRESS
neurotransmitters, hormones
ACh
Released from both pre-ganglia in para and sympathetic nervous system but only from post ganglionic in para sympathetic. In sympathetic nervous system post ganglionic cell releases norepinephrine.
Norepinephrine neurotransmitter
ALWAYS released from postganglionic fiber in the sympathetic nervous system.
Neurotransmitter if it's released from a neuron and traveling across a synapse.
Norepinephrine hormone
secreted by a gland into the bloodstream for more widespread distribution, it's a hormone.
increase blood flow in some parts of your body and restricts blood where its not needed
Cranial Nerve I
OLFACTORY NERVE
sensory
Cranial Nerve II
Optic
sensory
Cranial Nerve V
Trigeminal: enervates face and jaw muscles
Largest nerve
sensory and motor
Cranial Nerve VII
Facial Nerve; expressions
sensory and motor
Cranial Nerve VIII
Auditory nerve
sensory
Cranial Nerve X
VAGUS NERVE: controls heart and digestive tract among other functions.
Autonomic functions
sensory and motor
Adrenaline
Fight or flight response is stimulated by release of catecholamine hormones like adrenaline
Gonadotropins
responsible for sperm and egg maturation
Cervical Vertebrae
7 vertebrae
Thoracic Vertebrae
12 vertebrae
Lumbar Vertebrae
5 vertebrae
Tailbone
Coccyx
Lower leg bones
Fibula and Tibia
Foot bones
metatarsals and tarsals
Flat bone
Provides muscular attachment and also serves to protect the body's vital organs or sensitive areas.
Pupil
regulates amount of light entering the eye
Retina
Light sensitive layer of tissue that helps project images onto the back of the eye
Fovea Centralis
Most acute vision and is compromised only of cones
Phrenic nerve
Controls BREATHING and MOVEMENT OF DIAPHRAGM
If damage is done, diaphragm will not receive necessary signals to contract and/or relax making it extremely person for a person to breathe on their own
Calcitonin
Decrease calcium concentration in the blood
Naturally produced hormone that regulates blood calcium levels
Stimulates OSTEOBLASTS bone cells to add calcium to bone;
Pulmonary Valve/Semilunar valve
Prevent blood back flow between RIGHT VENTRICLE and PULMONARY ARTERY
Mitral Valve
located between LEFT VENTRICLE and LEFT ATRIUM
Aortic Valve
between LEFT VENTRICLE and AORTA
Tricuspid Valve
between RIGHT VENTRICLE and RIGHT ATRIUM
MOUTH
Mechanical (teeth) and chemical (amylase) breakdown of food through chewing and enzyme action
Amylase
breaks CARBS into fructose (sugars)
Carbohydrates are digested fastest, begins in mouth
PHARYNX
THROAT.
Propulsion in form of swallowing during which bolus passes through pharynx and into esophagus. Muscle contract and propel bolus inferiorly.
Food passes through oropharynx and then laryngo-pharynx. Propelled by peristalsis into esophagus.
Epiglottis
covers LARYNX (trachea:windpipe) which opens when breathing but when swallowing it closes and allows food to pass to esophagus
ESOPHAGUS
MUSCULAR TUBE transmits bolus from pharynx to stomach . Propulsion and small amount of secretion of mostly mucous.
STOMACH
...
Parietal Cells
secrete hydrochloric acid
acidic condition are need for pepsin to be activated
Chief Cells
secrete pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin)
PEPSIN
Pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid combined make up/activate pepsin
DIGESTS PROTEINS
acidic
Pyloric sphincter
connects stomach to small intestine
drops gastric juice and chyme into small intestine
SMALL INTESTINE
CHEMICAL DIGESTION
Absorbs nutrients
3 parts DJI
Duodenum
Chemical digestion
Receives chyme and gastric juices from the stomach through the pyloric sphincter
Imports bile from liver and gallbladder, enzymes from pancreas
Creates own enzymes
Lets stomach when and how much chyme to make so small intestine doesn't
Jejenum
Nutrient absorption
Illeum
Important VITAMINS are absorbed like A, B12, E, D K
LARGE INTESTINE
- Absorbs remaining water
- Stores feces until elimination
Houses good bacteria and digests whatever remaining nutrients they release
Perside over defecation
(colon, rectum, anus)
Cecum
First part of large intestine, food becomes feces here
Appendix
Last part of large intestine; Large intestine ends with appendix which house helpful bacteria
LIVER
MAKES BILE: emsulfier, attacks fatty food, keeps fats from clumping together
UNDER DIAPHGRAM
GALL BLADDER
STORES BILE
PANCREAS
Makes its own enzyme that digest food
pancreatic juice breaks macromolecules into micromolecules
Cardiac Sphincter
Group of contractile muscles between the esophagus and the stomach
If doesn't close properly it can cause heartburn of back flow of gastric juices into the esophagus.
Amylase
Begins the process of CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION in the mouth
Lipase
Important for the digestion of fats(lipids) and occurs in the duodenum of the small intestine
Made by pancreas
Proteases
Break down proteins and this process begins in the stomach
Protein digestion begins in stomach
Fats are broken down in the small intestine by ___.
Lipase made by pancreas and bille made by liver
Cephalic Phase
ruled by BRAIN
Gastric Phase
STOMACH
Intestinal Phase
SMALL INTESTINE speed or slows rate at which stomach empties chyme into intestine so it doesn't get too full of acid or chyme
Electrical impulses called "action potentials" move along the axon of a neuron by ____
SALTATORY CONDUCTION
The axon is covered in myelin sheath leaving small bare intermittently spaced regions referred to as the Nodes of Ranvier. The action potential, which is an electrical signal, spreads down the axon toward the axon terminal by jumping
Phagocytosis
engulf large particles
Exocytosis
Components leaving the cell
Pinocytosis
engulfing large amounts of FLUID not solid particles
Carbon Dioxide
Stimulus to regulate breathing
Increasing levels of CO2 regulates respiration rates
If CO2 Levels get to high blood becomes acidic. The body is more sensitive to wanting to release carbon dioxide to maintain neutral PH levels
Inhalation
Diaphragm contracts and lowers to allow more volume in the lungs for air to enter
Exhalation
diaphragm relaxes and lifts
Release of prolactin during breastfeeding is an example of
Positive Feedback
Positive Feedback
Starts off with first stimuli and happens by cascade of events
Negative Feedback
Tries to bring back body to where its supposed to be
shutting off a process when a stimulus is removed/satisfied
Multiple Sclerosis
Targets myelin sheath along the axon. Myelin sheath is degraded leading to slower neuron impulses as the action potential is unable to jump between the nodes of ranvier.
Apocrine Gland
Sweat glands in pubic and underarms that secrete thicker sweat, that produce odor when come in contact with bacteria on the skin
Thyroid Gland
Largest endocrine gland in the body
Located in neck, wrapped around the trachea (windpipe), butterfly shape, two lobes attached to one another by isthmus
Makes Calcitonin
Makes and stores hormones
TSH
Thyroid Stimulating hormone
Produced by anterior Pituitary Gland
Stimulates development and hormone production of thyroid gland
STH/GH
Somatotropin Hormone; GROWTH HORMONE regulates and controls growth; fat/lipid breakdown; glucose production; inhibition of glucose uptake by muscle fibers; production of IGF
Bone
epiphysis - ends of bone; diaphysis - middle; metaphysis - between epiphysis and diaphysis; trabeculi - spongy area; medular cavity - where marrow is; periosteum - membrane outer surface of bones; endosteum - thin layer of connective tissue
Parathyroid Glands
six small glands
regulation of calcium levels
regulates amount of calcium and magnesium that is excreted by the kidneys into the urine
Gonads
Primary sex organs
TESTES in males
OVARIES in females
secrete hormones (estrogen & testosterone) and gametes
Gametes
sex cells
in females gametes are ova, egg cells
in males gametes are sperm
Haploid Cells meaning they only have one set of chromosomes and form by meiosis.
Ovaries
Produce and release gametes and sex hormones like estrogen and progesterone.
Ovarian Follicles
Hold primary oocyte (proto egg type thing)
OOGENESIS
Making eggs until body is ready to reproduce;
Females are born with all the eggs they will ever have but around birth oocytes stop developing and get stuck at the first stage of meiosis and stay that way until puberty.
Fallopian Tubes
Connects ovaries to uterus
Ampulla: Most common site of fertilization
Infundibulum: Opens into peritoneal cavity. Ovaries aren't directly fused to fallopian tubes, there is an opening (peritoneal cavity)
Isthmus:
When the egg fuses with a sperm, it offici
Uterus
Holds, protects and nourish the fetus
In endometrium: egg implants itself here
Menstrual Cycle
Happens in the uterus to PREPARE for a fertilized egg
Ovarian Cycle
The MATURATION of the follicle and egg
Sperm temp
37 degrees, testes have to be outside the body cavity to reach the lower temperature necessary for proper spermatogenesis
Testes have to be outside because they must be 2-4 degrees cooler than the rest of the body to ensure proper development of the sperm
1) Testicles
Male gonads
responsible for making male gametes (sperm) and androgen hormone testosterone. Divided into lobes loaded with seminiferous tables.
Seminiferous tubules
Sperm production
Houses sertoli cells and leydig cells
Sertoli Cells
Nourish and SUPPORT developing sperm cells
Leydig Cells
Make Testosterone
2) Epididymis
Sperm MATURATION, Sperm STORAGE
3) Vas Deferens
Muscular tube that takes sperm out of scrotum. Carries mature sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
4) Ejaculatory Duct
Urethra and vas deferens meet through ejaculatory duct. Ejaculatory Duct remains closed to the urethra until ejaculation. When it opens it expels semen through the urethra.
5) Urethra
Tube inside penis, serves as canal for expelling urine and semen.
Male Organs Order
Testes- epididymis- Vas deferens - ejaculatory ducts- prostate gland- urethra which runs from the bladder through the penis into the outside world
Sperm Ejaculation Pathway
Vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra
Along the pathway are glands (prostate, Seminal vesicles, bulbourethral glands)
Prostate Gland
encircles/surround urethra and contracts to squeeze its own special secretion into the urethra
PSA ENZME: makes sperm more fluid so it's easier to move through
Bulbourethral Glands
Secretes clear mucus that drains into urethra to CLEAR OUT ACIDIC URINE PRIOR TO EJACULATION
Seminal Vesicles
Small Hollow Glands that SECRETE yellow slightly alkaline fluid that contains coagulating enzymes, fructose and other things TO HELP NOURISH AND TRANSPORT SPERM.
Secrete prostaglandins that help increase sperm success outside the body.
Spermatogenesis
In the testes DIPLOID GERM CELLS divide mitotically to create primary SPERMATOCYTES which continue to undergo mitosis to form FOUR HAPLOID SPERMATIDS from each primary spermatocyte. Spermatids still need motility though
Spermiogenesis
Spermatid elongates, grows a tail, or flagellum and officially becomes mobile sperm.
Acrosome
Specialized sac at the tip of the sperm full of enzymes that allow the sperm to break through the protective layers around the egg.
Skeletal Muscle
SRIATED AND VOLUNTARY
Make up most of muscular system
640 skeletal muscles
Function: Movement of skeleton, Posture, Heat Production
Made of myofilaments: Actin (thin) and Myosin (thick)
ACTIN has an area called the active site that can bind to a myosin he
Cardiac Muscle
STRIATED
INVOLUNTARY
intercalated disks
In heart
Smooth Muscle
NOT STRIATED
controlled by ANS
in hollow organs
Type I Fibers
SLOW but CAPABLE OF SUSTAINING A CONTRACTION
Resistant to fatigue
Contain great deal of myoglobin and mitochondria
(Red Fibers)
Type II Fibers
FAST but CONTRACTIONS ARE BRIEF
They can not hold on for too long
Contain less myoglobin and fewer mitochondria
(White Fibers)
Spasm
A muscle that is UNABLE TO RELAX
Tetanus
state of CONSTANT CONTRACTION caused by many rapid short impulses
Temporal Summation
Few short impulsed delivered over time build up the muscle contraction in strength and duration
Twitch
short contraction cause by single short nerve impulse
1. Isotonic
Muscle contracts; there is movement
muscle contractions that produce movement
2. Isometric
Muscle contracts; no movement
Produce no movement; rather they maintain posture and keep us still
a) Eccentric
Muscle contracts and gets longer
b) Concentric Contraction
Muscle contracts and gets shorter
3 ways muscles get energy
1. Creatine phosphate; Reactions in the cytosol that immediately add a phosphate group to ADP
2. Glycolytic catabolism in the cytosol
3. Oxidative Catabolism in the mitochondria
Creatine Phosphate
Creatine phosphate donates a phosphate group to energy depleted ADP, producing ATP
Glycogen
During glycolytic or anaerobic catabolism, molecules use glucose to create ATP.
Glycolysis; glucose is broken down to to produce 2 ATP. A muscle fiber has 2 potential sources of glucose for glycolysis: glucose from bloodstream, and a storage form of gluco
Oxidate energy; Myoglobin
Myoglobin stores oxygen giving the muscles an amount of
ALBUMIN
Plasma protein MAINTAINS OSMOTIC PRESSUREand is made my liver. Smallest plasma protein but makes up most of plasma proteins.
FIBRINOGEN
Largest plasma protein but makes up smallest percentage. FUNCTIONS IN BLOOD COAGULATION (blood clumping) stopping bleeding.
BILLIRUBIN
Yellow pigment released blood and binds to albumin for transport.
LIVER CELLS PICK UP BILIRUBIN AND TURN IT SECRETE IT (IN BILE) IN INTESTINE. MOST OF THIS DEGRADED PIGMENT (urobilinogen) LEAVES BODY IN FECES AS BROWN PIGMENT.
Hemostasis
Platelets clump together when endothelial cells tear but it's not enough so it needs reinforcement from fibrinogen strands. Fibrin strands pull walls together, blood vessel heals and blood clot dissolves
Hematopoiesis
Process that produces formed elements in blood. Occurs in red bone marrow from which all formed elements arise
Erythropoises
Formation of erythrocytes RBC's. Requires presence of erythropoietin. RBC main goal is to transport oxygen to tissues and pick up CO2..
Erythrocyte Death
Erythrocytes become trapped in sinusoids of the spleen. spleen macrophages digest RBC's. Hemoglobin is broken down into amino acids, iron ions, and bilirubin. Iron ions and amino acids are used to make new hemoglobin in red bone marrow but bilirubin is se
Antigen A
has B antibodies
Antigen B
has A antibodies
AB
has both antigens therefore no antibodies.
O
has no antigens, so it has A and B antibodies
RH+
Accepts Positive or negative blood
RH-
should stick to negative blood
AB+
UNIVERSAL RECEIVER
has both antigens therefore no antibodies and can accept positive and negative
O-
UNIVERSAL DONOR
has no antigens so it has A and B antibodies
Neutrophils
PHAGOCYTIZE BACTERIA; bacteria slayers,
GRANULOCYTE
MOST NUMEROUS LEUKOCYTE
Neutrophils are attracted to injured cells by chemical released by the damaged cells, a process called chemotaxis.
Eosinophils
GRANULOCYTE
Involved in body's response to infections with PARASITIC WORMS and in ALLERGIC REACTIONS
Basophils
LEAST COMMON
GRANULOCYTE
RELEASE HISTAMINE and MEDIATE INFLAMMATION; anticoagulation
granulocyte
Lymphocytes
Mount immune response by direct cell attack or via antibodies
B Cells: secretes antibodies that bind to antigens and remove them from tissues.
T Cell: activate other components of immune system and DIRECTLY DESTROY ABNORMAL BODY CELLS such as CANCER CELLS
Monocytes
PHAGOCYTOSIS; DEVELOP INTO MACROPHAGES IN TISSUE
LARGEST LEUKOCYTE
(macrophages ingest dead and dying cells, bacteria, antigens and other cellular debris)
Neurotransmitters:
Seratonin
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Function:
Regulates mood, appetite,
Emotion and attention, makes you feel good
Triggers flight or fight response, Increases heart rate