Cephalocaudal Pattern
sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs from the top downward
Proximodistal Pattern
sequence in which growth starts in the center of the body and moves toward the extremities
height and weight
Average North American newborn is 20 inches long and 7 � pounds
95% of full-term newborns are 18-22 inches long and weigh between 5 � and 10 lbs.
Weight usually triples by their 1st birthday
Newborns gain approximately 1 inch per month during the first ye
Shaken Baby Syndrome
brain swelling and hemorrhaging from child abuse trauma
brain weight
At birth, the brain is 25% of its adult weight; at 2 years of age, it is 75% of its adult weight
forebrain
portion of the brain farthest from the spinal cord; includes cerebral cortex
Cerebral Cortex
folded surface covering the forebrain, has 4 lobes
frontal lobe
voluntary movement, thinking, personality, and intentionality
occipital lobe
vision functions
temporal lobe
hearing, language processing, and memory
parietal lobe
spatial location, attention, and motor control
Lateralization
specialization of function in one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex or the other
Some functions are lateralized, some are not
Complex functions involve communication between both hemispheres
neurons
brain nerve cells that communicate through electrical and chemical signals
axons
carry signals away from the cell body
dendrites
carry signals toward the cell body
myelin sheath
is a layer of fat cells that insulate axons
Helps electrical signals travel faster
terminal buttons
release chemicals (neurotransmitters) into synapses
Myelination
the process of encasing axons with fat cells
Begins prenatally and continues into adolescence
brain growth
Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grow up in a deprived environment
Enriched environments promote faster brain development than deprived ones
sleep
Typical newborns sleep 16-17 hours per day
Infants vary in their preferred times for sleeping
Most have moved closer to adult-like sleep patterns by 4 months of age
Babies average much more REM sleep than do older children or adults
REM sleep may provide
factors involved in night walking
Daytime crying and fussing
Distress when separated from mother
Breast feeding
Co-sleeping
shared sleeping
a newborn shares a bed with mother, varies among cultures
Potential benefits:
Promotes breast feeding and a quicker response to crying
Allows mother to detect potentially dangerous breathing pauses in baby
American Academy of Pediatrics discourages shared
SIDS
infants stop breathing and die without apparent cause
Highest cause of infant death in U.S. annually
Highest risk is 2-4 months of age
Risk decreases when infant sleeps on its back and when a pacifier is used
nutrition
Experts recommend that infants consume 50 calories per day for each pound they weigh
U.S. parents typically do not feed infants enough fruits and vegetables
By 15 months, French fries are the most common vegetable eaten
Increasing rates of overweight and
benefits of breastfeeding
Fewer gastrointestinal and lower respiratory tract infections
Potentially decreased risk of asthma
Less likely to become overweight or obese
Less incidence of diabetes
Less likely to experience SIDS
for mother:
Lower incidence of breast and ovarian cancer
women least likely to breastfeed
Mothers who work full-time outside of the home
Mothers under age 25
Mothers without a high school education
African-American mothers
Mothers in low-income circumstances
mother should not breast feed if
She has AIDS or other infectious diseases that can be transmitted through milk
She has active tuberculosis
She is taking a drug that may not be safe for the infant
malnutrition
Early weaning and inadequate sources of nutrients can cause malnutrition
Marasmus
a severe protein-calorie deficiency
Results in a wasting away of body tissues
Kwashiorkor
a severe protein deficiency that causes the abdomen and feet to swell with water
Causes the vital organs to collect nutrients, depriving other parts of the body
Dynamic Systems View:
Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting
Motor skills represent solutions to goals
Development is an active process in which nature and nurture work together
Development of nervous system
Body's physical properties and possibilities for movement
Goal the child is motivated to reach
Environmental support for the skill
reflexes
built-in reactions to stimuli; generally carry survival mechanisms
rooting reflex
when the infant's cheek is stroked, the infant will turn its head to the side that was touched
moro reflex
automatic arching of back and wrapping of arms to center of body when startled
grasping reflex
infant's hands close around anything that touches the palms
gross motor skills
skills that involve large-muscle activities
Walking, grabbing for objects
Gross motor skills require postural control
Posture is a dynamic process linked with sensory information in the skin, joints, and muscles
Infants can produce stepping movements need
development in 2nd year
Toddlers become more skilled and mobile
Motor activity is vital to the child's development of competence and independence
by 18-24 months
Walk quickly or run stiffly
Balance on their feet in a squat position
Walk backward
Stand and kick a ball without falling
Jump in place
Cultural Variations
mothers in developing countries tend to stimulate their infants' motor skills more than mothers in more modern countries
fine motor skills
involve finely tuned movements
Reaching and grasping is a significant milestone for infants
palmer grasp
grasping with the whole hand
pincer grasp
grasping with the thumb and forefinger
Perceptual-motor coupling
necessary for infants to coordinate grasping
sensation
occurs when information interacts with sensory receptors (eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin)
perception
the interpretation of what is sensed
ecological view
we directly perceive information that exists in the world around us
The perceptual system selects from the rich information provided by the environment
Perception enables interaction with, and adaptation to, one's environment
affordance
opportunities for interaction offered by objects that fit within our capabilities to perform activities
Visual Preference Method
infants look at different things for different lengths of time
Habituation
decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations
Dishabituation
recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation
newborns vision
about 20/600 (an object 20 feet away appears as if it were 600 feet away)
vision at 6 months
vision is 20/100 or better
Perceptual Constancy
sensory stimulation is changing but perception of the physical world remains constant
size constancy
recognition that an object remains the same even though the retinal image of the object changes
Babies as young as 3 months show size constancy
Continues to develop until 10 or 11 years old
shape constantcy
recognition that an object remains the same shape even though its orientation to us changes
3-month-olds show shape constancy, but not for irregularly shaped objects
recognition
Fetuses can hear and learn sounds during the last two months of pregnancy and can recognize their mother's voice at birth
newborns hearing
Cannot hear soft sounds as well as adults
Are less sensitive to pitch
Are fairly good at determining the location of a sound
touch and pain
newborns respond to touch and can feel pain
smell
newborns can differentiate odors
Preference for mother's smell by 6 days
taste
sensitivity to taste may be present before birth
Intermodal Perception
the ability to integrate information from two or more sensory modalities
Babies are born with some innate abilities to perceive relations among senses
Their abilities improve considerably through experience
Perceptual-Motor Coupling:
action guides perception, and perception guides action